<p>The Mission Inn, now known as The Mission Inn Hotel & Spa, is a historic landmark hotel in downtown Riverside, California. Although a composite of many architectural styles, it is generally considered the largest Mission Revival Style building in the United States. Mission Inn Hotel & Spa is a member of Historic Hotels of America, the official program of the National Trust for Historic Preservation.</p><br>
<p>The owners are Duane and Kelly Roberts. The latter serves as vice chairman and chief operating officer.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The property began as an adobe boarding house called Glenwood Cottage, built by engineer/surveyor Christopher Columbus Miller and on November 22, 1876, the Millers took their first paying guest. In February 1880, Millers son Frank Augustus Miller purchased the hotel and land from his father. It became a full-service hotel in the early 1900s due to Californias economic citrus boom and warm weather, attracting wealthy travelers and investors from the East Coast and Europe. In 1902, Frank changed the name to the "Glenwood Mission Inn" and started building, in a variety of styles, until he died in 1935.</p><br>
<p>Miller&#39;s vision for the eclectic structure was drawn from many historical design periods, revivals, influences, and styles. Some are Spanish Gothic architecture, Mission Revival Style architecture, Moorish Revival architecture, Spanish Colonial style architecture, Spanish Colonial Revival Style architecture, Renaissance Revival architecture, and Mediterranean Revival Style architecture. With one section over another, addition upon addition, the result is a complicated and intricately built structure. It contains narrow passageways, exterior arcades, a medieval-style clock, a five-story rotunda, numerous patios and windows, castle towers, minarets, a Cloister Wing (with an underground Cloister walk), flying buttresses, Mediterranean domes and a pedestrian sky bridge among many other features.</p><br>
<p>The St. Francis Chapel houses eight, stained-glass windows created by Louis Comfort Tiffany in 1906. The windows were salvaged from the Madison Square Presbyterian Church and the chapel was purpose-built to house them. The Mexican-Baroque styled "Rayas Altar" is 25 feet tall by 16 feet across, carved from cedar and completely covered in gold leaf. For his "Garden of Bells," Miller collected over 800 bells, including one dating from the year 1247 described as the "oldest bell in Christendom."</p><br>
<p>In 1932, Frank Miller opened the St. Francis Atrio. The "Famous Fliers Wall", added by Millers son-in-law DeWitt Hutchings, was used to recognize notable aviators, including Amelia Earhart. On March 20, 1942, World War I ace Eddie Rickenbacker was honored at the inn, becoming the fifty-seventh flier added to the monument. Today, 151 fliers or groups of fliers are honored by having their signatures etched onto 10 in copper wings attached to the wall.</p><br>
<p>Frank Miller died in 1935 and the inn continued under the management of his daughter and son-in-law, Allis and DeWitt Hutchings, who died in 1956. The inn then went through a series of ownership changes and some of its older rooms were converted to apartments and used as dorms for UC Riverside. In the early 1960s, St. John&#39;s College considered buying it as a location for its western campus but abandoned negotiations when John Gaw Meem donated land in Santa Fe, New Mexico.</p><br>
<p>During the 1970s and 1980s, the Mission Inn faced significant financial difficulties and deterioration. There were ongoing discussions about possibly demolishing the historic hotel to make way for other developments. The Friends of the Mission Inn helped secure the necessary support to have The Mission Inn designated a National Historic Landmark on May 5, 1977.</p><br>
<p>The Carley Capital Group began restoring the Mission Inn in 1985. However, the project faced financial difficulties and was halted in 1988 when Chemical Bank foreclosed on the property. The Carley Capital Group did face significant financial difficulties during their restoration of the Mission Inn, but they did not go bankrupt. Instead, the project was halted in 1988 when Chemical Bank foreclosed on the property due to the financial strain. By that time, the Carley Capital Group had already invested an estimated $40 million to $50 million into the restoration efforts.</p><br>
<p>In 1992, Duane Roberts purchased the Mission Inn Hotel & Spa and restored many of the propertys architectural Spanish Mission-style features and undertaking modernization of the hotels facilities. His wife, Kelly, manages the hotel. Annual events include the Festival of Lights, Feste dell’Amore and the Pumpkin Stroll. Historic Hotels of America announced on August 8, 2024 that Kelly and Duane Roberts had been named recipients of the 2024 Historic Hotels of America Steward of History and Historic Preservation Award for their efforts.</p><br>
<p>During the inn&#39;s "Festival of Lights" celebration in November 2022, a fire broke out on the roof following the fireworks display.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>With its widely varying styles, the Mission Inn was designed by multiple architects. Frank Miller selected Arthur Burnett Benton to design the original building. Miller chose Myron Hunt to design the Spanish Wing added to the rear of the main building. He later hired G. Stanley Wilson to design the St. Francis Chapel. Wilson also added a rotunda featuring circular staircases and a dome.</p><br>
<h2>Notable guests</h2><br>
<p>For 120 years, the Mission Inn has been the center of Riverside, host to USA Presidents, celebrities, a number of seasonal and holiday functions, as well as occasional political functions and other major social gatherings. Pat and Richard Nixon were married in what is now the Presidential Lounge, Nancy and Ronald Reagan honeymooned there, and eight other USA presidents have visited the inn: Benjamin Harrison, William McKinley, Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, Herbert Hoover, John F. Kennedy, Gerald Ford, and George W. Bush.</p><br>
<p>Social leaders who have stopped at the Mission Inn include Susan B. Anthony, Henry Ford, Andrew Carnegie, John D. Rockefeller, Henry Huntington, Albert Einstein, Joseph Pulitzer, William Randolph Hearst, Hubert H. Bancroft, Harry Chandler, Booker T. Washington, Helen Keller and John Muir.</p><br>
<p>The list of entertainers who have toured the inn is extensive. Lillian Russell, Sarah Bernhardt and Harry Houdini were early visitors to Frank Miller&#39;s hotel. Other guests have included actors such as Ethel Barrymore, Charles Boyer, Eddie Cantor, Mary Pickford, Ginger Rogers, Bette Davis (who was married at the inn in 1945), W.C. Fields, Clark Gable, Cary Grant, Spencer Tracy, Fess Parker, James Brolin and Barbra Streisand, Raquel Welch and Drew Barrymore. Other celebrities such as Jack Benny, Bob Hope, Glen Campbell, Merle Haggard and have stopped by. Tears for Fears shot their music video for the song "Raoul and the Kings of Spain" there in 1995. Noted Jazz bassist, Henry Franklin, played a regular five-night gig for over a decade at The Mission Inn until 2011.</p><br>
<h2>Popular culture</h2><br>
<p>In 1909 Carrie Jacobs-Bond wrote the lyrics for her famous song "A Perfect Day" while staying in the Mission Inn. For many years the Mission Inn&#39;s carillon played "A Perfect Day" as the last tune each evening.</p><br>
<p>The Inn appears in Anne Rice&#39;s 2009 book Angel Time.</p><br>
<p>The inns unique architecture and ambiance have attracted many film makers. Film shoots at the inn include 1938s Idiots Delight with Clark Gable, 1951s The First Legion with Charles Boyer, 1969s Tell Them Willie Boy Is Here with Robert Redford, 1975s The Wild Party with Raquel Welch and James Coco, Billy Wilders 1981 comedy Buddy Buddy with Jack Lemmon and Walter Matthau, 1988s Vibes with Jeff Goldblum, and 1977&#39;s Black Samurai with Jim Kelly.</p><br>
<p>The Mission Inn was featured in a Traveltalks short subject by James A. Fitzpatrick in the 1944 episode "Along the Cactus Trail".</p><br>
<p>In 1982, Eddie Money filmed the music video of "Think I&#39;m in Love" at the inn.</p><br>
<p>The Sliders season 3 episodes 16 and 17 ("Exodus", parts I and II) were shot extensively in the Mission Inn, which played as a military base.</p><br>
<p>The finale of the 1973-74 TV series The Magician season 1 episode "Man on Fire" was shot extensively in the Mission Inn, which was supposedly "under renovation".Tears for Fears also filmed the video for the album Raoul and the Kings of Spain with the same name in the late 90&#39;s at the end. Roland Orzabal also had pictures for the album taken there as well.</p><br>
<p>The New Orleans Mint  operated in New Orleans, Louisiana, as a branch mint of the United States Mint from 1838 to 1861 and from 1879 to 1909. During its years of operation, it produced over 427 million gold and silver coins of nearly every American denomination, with a total face value of over US$ 307 million. It was closed during most of the American Civil War and Reconstruction.</p><br>
<p>After it was decommissioned as a mint, the building has served a variety of purposes, including as an assay office, a United States Coast Guard storage facility, and a fallout shelter.</p><br>
<p>Since 1981 it has served as a branch of the Louisiana State Museum. Damaged by Hurricane Katrina in 2005, after over two years of repairs and renovations, the museum reopened in October 2007.</p><br>
<p>Exhibits include instruments used by some of New Orleans&#39; notable jazz musicians, photographs, and posters, now part of the New Orleans Jazz Museum. The site is also a performance venue for jazz concerts, in partnership with the New Orleans Jazz National Historical Park and the private Music at the Mint organization.</p><br>
<p>The Louisiana Historical Center is located on the third floor of the building. The center includes collections of colonial-era manuscripts and maps, and primary and secondary source materials in a wide range of media. It is open to anyone with an interest in Louisiana history and culture.</p><br>
<p>The New Orleans Mint has been designated a National Historic Landmark, and it is the oldest extant structure to have served as a USA Mint. Along with the Charlotte Mint, it is one of two former mint facilities in the USA to house an art gallery.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Antebellum period, 1835–1861</h3><br>
<h4>Background</h4><br>
<p>The establishment of the New Orleans Mint was prompted by a complex fiscal crisis of the 1830s, which included a general shortage of domestically-minted coinage and the frequent circulation of foreign coins to alleviate the problem. In 1832 President Andrew Jackson had vetoed a rechartering of the Second Bank of the United States, an institution which he felt extended credit to northeastern commercial tycoons at the expense of the ordinary frontiersmen of the Old Southwest, a region with which Jackson, a Tennessean, strongly identified. In 1836 Jackson had issued an executive order called the Specie Circular which demanded that all land transactions in the United States be conducted in cash. Both of these actions, combined with the economic depression following the Panic of 1837 (caused partly by Jackson&#39;s fiscal policies) increased the domestic need for minted money.</p><br>
<p>As a result, in 1835 the USA Federal Government established three branch mints: the Charlotte Mint in North Carolina, the Dahlonega Mint in Georgia and the New Orleans Mint. Dahlonega and Charlotte were in gold mining regions and these mints produced only gold coins. New Orleans was selected because of the citys strategic location along the Mississippi River which made it a vitally important center for commercial activity, including the export of cotton from the areas plantations. Large quantities of gold from Mexico also passed through its port annually.</p><br>
<p>In the early 19th century, New Orleans, which was the fifth-largest city in the United States until the Civil War, conducted more foreign trade than any other city in the nation. It was also located relatively near to gold deposits recently discovered in Alabama. While the Philadelphia Mint produced a substantial quantity of coinage, in the early 19th century it could not disperse the money swiftly to the far regions of the new nation, particularly the South and West. In contrast to the other two Southern branch mints, which only minted gold coinage, the New Orleans Mint produced both gold and silver coins, and in much greater quantities and total value, which marked it as the most important branch mint in the country until the San Francisco Mint began minting a large monetary value of gold coins in the mid 1850s.</p><br>
<p>The Mints location occupies a prominent place in civic history. It sits at one of the two River corners of the French Quarter, which had been the entire city, or Vieux Carré, of New Orleans. Under French and Spanish rule this location was home to one of the citys defensive fortifications. In 1792 the Spanish governor, Francisco Luis Héctor de Carondelet, erected Fort San Carlos (later Fort St. Charles) here. The fort was demolished in 1821; and the nearby area was later named Jackson Square in honor of Andrew Jackson. As a general in the United States Army, Jackson&#39;s leadership had saved the city from invading British forces during December 1814 and through January 8, 1815, the date of the famous Battle of New Orleans, the last significant battle of the War of 1812.</p><br>
<h4>Architectural history</h4><br>
<h4>=Design and construction=</h4><br>
<p>The Mint building, which was constructed in red brick, was designed by architect William Strickland in the Greek Revival style, like most 19th-century public buildings in the United States. Strickland was a student of the architect Benjamin Latrobe, a disciple of Neoclassicism who had helped design the United States Capitol building in Washington, D.C. Strickland himself, based in Philadelphia, had already designed the Philadelphia Mint building and the Second Bank of the United States, and would design the Charlotte and Dahlonega facilities, making him the architect of the first four USA mint buildings. Martin Gordon supervised the building&#39;s construction, which was undertaken by Benjamin F. Fox, the master carpenter and joiner, and John Mitchell, the master stonemason and builder.</p><br>
<p>On the north façade the mint building features a central projecting Ionic portico, supported by four monumental columns that are flanked at the ends by square pillars. The top of the portico contains a simple entablature, crowned by a flat roof in front of a simple, unadorned pediment. This entrance, which sits on top of a basement story, fronts the rectangular central core of the facility and is flanked by two large wings of multiple bays of rectangular windows. These wings wrap around the central rectangular core to form a W-shaped structure with two square courtyards at the rear. Balconies framed by iron railings and posts adorn the sections of the buildings south façade that adjoin the courtyards. Architectural historian Talbot Hamlin described it thus: "it has those graceful, original proportions so characteristic of Stricklands work. Even today, condemned to a use so different from that for which it was designed, it remains one of the most distinguished of the earlier buildings of New Orleans."</p><br>
<p>On the interior, Strickland placed the grand staircase that connects the three levels immediately behind the portico in the central core of the structure. The floor system is composed of fired-clay jack arches supported on steel I-beams, a common feature of warehouses and other long-span structures. On the second floor, many of the larger rooms, which were used for coining and melting, contain ceilings with beautiful high arches supported by the walls and freestanding piers. The smaller rectangular rooms on the second level (and the basement), such as the former superintendent&#39;s office, also contain these arched ceilings with a single groin vault. The basement formerly contained the boilers inside a brick cage, but now contain museum exhibits devoted to the minting processes as well as the Coin Vault at the Mint, a coin shop.</p><br>
<h4>=Structural problems and repairs=</h4><br>
<p>Strickland did not take into account the swampy lowland and high water table that characterizes the terrain around New Orleans, and so during its career the New Orleans Mint building has encountered numerous structural problems from the shifting soil beneath its foundation. In the 1840s the building was reinforced with iron rods inserted between the floors. In 1854, the federal government hired West Point engineering graduate (and Louisiana native) Pierre Gustave Toutant Beauregard to fireproof the building, rebuild the arches supporting the basement ceiling and install masonry flooring. Beauregard completed the work in conjunction with Captain Johnson K. Duncan by 1859. During this period, the Mint&#39;s heavy machinery was converted to steam power so a smokestack (since demolished) was built at the rear of the structure to carry away the fumes.</p><br>
<p>Less than two years later, Beauregard would rise to national fame as the Confederate general who ordered the April 1861 assault on Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor, South Carolina, thus beginning the American Civil War. It was during the war that Beauregard would secure his place in American history as one of the Confederacy&#39;s most capable generals.</p><br>
<h4>Early coining operations</h4><br>
<p>Like any other mint the New Orleans Mint was a factory to make coins. Operations at the New Orleans Mint began on March 8, 1838, with the deposit of the first Mexican gold bullion. The first coins, 30 dimes, were struck on May 7. Until it was taken over by the Confederacy in 1861 it produced many different denominations, all of which were either silver or gold: silver three-cent pieces (1851 only), half dimes, dimes, quarters, half dollars, silver dollars, gold dollars, $2.50 quarter eagles, three-dollar pieces, $5 half-eagles, $10 eagles, and $20 double eagles.</p><br>
<p>Many interesting characters served at the Mint during the early years of operation. One was John Leonard Riddell, who served as melter and refiner at the Mint from 1839 to 1848, and, outside of his job, pursued interests in botany, medicine, chemistry, geology, and physics. He invented the binocular microscope. He also wrote on numismatics, publishing in 1845 a book entitled Monograph of the Silver Dollar, Good and Bad, Illustrated With Facsimile Figures, and two years later an article by him appeared in DeBow&#39;s Review called "The Mint at New Orleans—Processes Pursued of Working the Precious Metals—Statistics of Coinage, etc." Riddell was not held in high esteem by everyone, however: his conflicts with other Mint employees were well-documented, and at one point he was accused of being unable to properly conduct a gold melt.</p><br>
<p>Throughout the 19th century the New Orleans Mint was frequently featured in magazines, newspapers and other print publications. Articles discussing and images picturing the Mint, in addition to the one by Riddell noted above, were featured in Ballous Pictorial Drawing-Room Companion, published in Boston, and the widely circulated Harpers Weekly.</p><br>
<h3>Civil War and recommissioning, 1861–1879</h3><br>
<h4>Secession and Confederate seizure</h4><br>
<p>The New Orleans Mint operated continuously from 1838 until January 26, 1861, when Louisiana seceded from the United States. On January 29, the Secession Convention reconvened at New Orleans (it had earlier met in Baton Rouge) and passed an ordinance that allowed Federal employees to remain in their posts, but as employees of the state of Louisiana. On February 5, 1861, during the proceedings of the Convention of the State of Louisiana in New Orleans, the committee appointed by the Convention to take an inventory on February 1, 1861, of public property in the hands of the officers of the late Federal government reported that the Sub-Treasurer&#39;s vault at the mint contained $483,983 in gold and silver coins. The National Archives records in Rockville, Maryland, indicate the $483,983 consisted of $308,771 in gold coins and $175,212.08 in silver coins. The only gold coin produced in January, 1861 was the $20 gold double-eagle. This means 15,438 $20 gold coins were minted by the New Orleans Mint during January, 1861. Mint coinage records for the $20 1861-O gold double-eagle indicate only 5,000 $20 gold pieces were minted by the Federal Government in January, 1861. This discrepancy is explained in a Numismatist Journal article.</p><br>
<p>In March 1861, Louisiana ratified the Constitution of the Confederate States and the Confederate government retained all the mint officers. They used it briefly as their own coinage facility. The Confederates struck 962,633 of the 2,532,633 New Orleans half-dollar coins dated 1861. Research suggests that 1861-O half dollars bearing a bisected date die crack ("WB-103") and 1861-O half-dollars with a "speared olive bud" anomaly ("WB-104") on the reverse had been minted under authority of the Confederacy. Confederate officials designed alternate reverse dies which they used to strike their own half-dollars in New Orleans (see image). The exact number of the half-dollar coins struck by the Confederate mint with the alternate reverse is unknown; but only four are known to exist today. One of them, which was sold at auction for a large sum, had once been owned by Jefferson Davis, the only President of the C.S.A.</p><br>
<p>Confederate minting operations continued from April 1 until the bullion ran out later that month. The staff remained on duty until May 31, 1861. After that the mint was used for quartering Confederate troops, until it was recaptured along with the rest of the city the following year, largely by Union naval forces under the command of Admiral David Farragut.</p><br>
<h4>Occupation by Union forces</h4><br>
<p>For many Southern sympathizers, the Mint soon became a symbol of their hatred for the Union occupation. After USA Marines under Farragut had raised the USA flag on the roof of the Mint in April 1862, a professional steamboat gambler named William Bruce Mumford ascended the roof and tore the flag down. He ripped the banner into shreds, and defiantly stuffed pieces of it into his shirt to wear as souvenirs. Union General Benjamin Franklin Butler, the military governor of New Orleans (who was soon to be derisively nicknamed "Spoons" for allegedly pocketing the silverware of New Orleans citizens) arrested Mumford for treason against the United States and ordered Mumford executed in retaliation. And so, Mumford was hanged from a flagstaff projecting horizontally from the building on June 7, 1862. Mumford&#39;s hanging made national headlines. Jefferson Davis demanded that Butler immediately be executed if captured. The event stuck in the minds of many New Orleanians: eleven years later, in 1873, a visitor to the city named Edward King mentioned it in his description of the structure.</p><br>
<p>The mint reopened as an assay office in 1876. Its machinery was evidently damaged during the war, but because of its importance, unlike the mints at Charlotte and Dahlonega, in 1877 USA Mint agent James R. Snowden asked the superintendent of the office, Maximilian F. Bonzano, to report on the condition of the facility for minting. Upon receipt of Bonzano&#39;s report, new minting equipment was shipped to New Orleans. The building was refurbished and put back into active minting service in 1879, producing mainly silver coinage, including the famed Morgan silver dollar from 1879 to 1904.</p><br>
<h3>A second chance, 1879–1909</h3><br>
<h4>New Orleans coinage</h4><br>
<p>The refurbishment and recommissioning of the New Orleans Mint was due partly to the fact that in 1878 the Federal government in Washington, D.C. had passed the Bland–Allison Act, which mandated the purchase and coining of a large quantity of silver yearly. The Treasury Department needed additional facilities to do so. It reopened the New Orleans facility primarily to coin large quantities of silver dollars, most of which were simply stored in the building instead of circulated. President Rutherford B. Hayes appointed former Mississippi Senator and governor Henry S. Foote the new superintendent of the mint.</p><br>
<p>During this second period of operation, the Mint also struck dimes, quarters, half dollars, $5 half eagles, $10 eagles and, in 1879 only, 2,325 double eagles. It should also be noted that the New Orleans Mint was used by the Federal authorities in 1907 to coin over five and a half million silver twenty-centavo pieces for the Mexican government as part of the American government&#39;s program of producing foreign coinage. These coins can be distinguished by a "curved" numeral 7 on the coin.</p><br>
<p>The New Orleans Mint, whose coins can be identified by the "O" mint mark found on the reverse of its coinage, earned a reputation for producing coins of a mediocre quality; their luster is usually not as brilliant as those of other mints, and center areas tend to be flattened and not sharply struck. Thus, well-struck New Orleanian coinage is prized in the numismatic world today.</p><br>
<h4>Social history</h4><br>
<p>But it was also during the mint&#39;s second tour of duty that women began to find work at the New Orleans Mint. Several women workers were sent from the Philadelphia Mint to teach those in New Orleans how to adjust money. About this time, the mint employed forty-four women. Thirty-nine worked as adjusters – employees who weighed the unstamped coin planchets to make sure they were the proper weight before coining. These women would sit at long narrow tables, filing the planchets down to the proper weight, wearing special aprons with pouches attached to the sleeves and the waist to catch the excess dust. Five women served as counters and packers before the coins were shipped to Washington, D.C. Some women were eventually employed at the coining presses.</p><br>
<p>The women worked from 8:30 a.m. to 3:30 p.m. daily – not long hours – but the working conditions were probably unbearable by modern standards. New Orleans has a warm, wet climate. The process of adjusting, however, required the utmost attention to the scales&#39; balance, and the slightest draft could upset it. The draft could also carry off the silver dust from the coin planchets the women would file. For these reasons the windows and doors were almost always kept shut, resulting in a very hot working environment. Workers relied on water coolers to provide relief from the heat and avoid dehydration. The women mint employees were judged to enjoy better working conditions than many other American women workers in the late nineteenth century.</p><br>
<h3>The mint in the 20th and 21st centuries</h3><br>
<h4>Closure</h4><br>
<p>By the early twentieth century, the USA Treasury had mints operating in New Orleans, Denver, San Francisco, and the main center in Philadelphia, which more than met the demand for minted money. In 1904, the government ceased the minting of the silver dollar, which accounted for the bulk of the coinage the New Orleans branch had been producing since 1879. In 1909 Treasury officials declined to appropriate funds for the mint&#39;s operation, effectively halting subsequent minting activity in New Orleans. In 1911, the New Orleans Mint was formally decommissioned and the machinery was transferred to the main U. S. Mint facility in Philadelphia.</p><br>
<p>Twenty years later, in 1930, Governor Huey Long would rail against this loss when he ran for the office of USA Senator against incumbent Joseph E. Ransdell. In a circular distributed by his campaign to the citizens of New Orleans, Long listed the loss of the Mint as the very first of many complaints against Ransdell&#39;s lengthy service record in the Senate. Long went on to win the election, although he did not take office until his term as governor expired in 1932. At some point, however, the original New Orleans machinery was lost, and, at present, has not been located.</p><br>
<h4>Transformation</h4><br>
<p>After the mint closed, it performed a variety of functions for the Federal government. It was first downgraded to an assay office for the USA Treasury as it had been from 1876 to 1879. Then, in 1932, the assay office closed and the building was converted into a Federal prison, in which capacity it served until 1943. The Coast Guard then took over the building as a nominal storage facility, though in truth the structure was largely abandoned and left to decay until it was transferred to the state of Louisiana in 1965. During the Cold War, when many believed there to be a high risk of nuclear war, the old Mint was considered to be the best fallout shelter in the city.</p><br>
<p>The state agreed to save the structure from demolition on the condition that it be renovated and converted to some new purpose within fifteen years. Between 1978 and 1980 this goal was met. Since 1981, the Mint building has functioned as a museum of its coin production history. Additional exhibitions housed in the facility have been devoted to New Orleans Mardi Gras (since moved to the Presbytere building on Jackson Square), jazz music (a large exhibit and research materials previously in the New Orleans Jazz Museum &ndash; donated by the N.O. Jazz Club), and Newcomb Pottery. All three phenomena have contributed to New Orleans&#39; fame.</p><br>
<p>On the third floor, the Mint houses an archive of maps and documents, including French and Spanish colonial records. Along with the Cabildo, the Presbytere, the 1850 House, and Madame John&#39;s Legacy, this facility is one of five branches of the Louisiana State Museum in the French Quarter.See</p><br>
<p>The Mint building is located at 400 Esplanade Avenue, not far from the Mississippi River.</p><br>
<h4>Katrina aftermath</h4><br>
<p>The mint building suffered significant roof damage from the hurricane. Water entered the building and came into contact with approximately 3% of the New Orleans Jazz collection, portions of which were removed and cared for at Louisiana State University, the University of Louisiana at Lafayette, and the Louisiana State Archives.</p><br>
<h2>Coinage produced</h2><br>
<h3>Silver coins</h3><br>
<h3>Gold coins</h3><br>
<p>Fort Gaines is a historic fort on Dauphin Island, Alabama, United States. It was named for Edmund Pendleton Gaines. Established in 1821, it is best known for its role in the Battle of Mobile Bay during the American Civil War.</p><br>
<h2>Exhibits</h2><br>
<p>Exhibits include the huge anchor from, Admiral David Farraguts flagship on which he gave his world-famous command, "Damn the torpedoes – full speed ahead!" The fort also has the original cannons used in the battle, five pre-Civil War brick buildings in the interior courtyard, operational blacksmith shop and kitchens, tunnel systems to the fortified corner bastions, and similar features. A museum details the history of this period, as well as the French colonial presence beginning in the late 17th century. The fort was partially modernized for the Spanish–American War. It is a tourist destination with tours and historical reenactment events. The site is considered to be one of the nations best-preserved Civil War era masonry forts and has been nominated for listing as a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<h2>Condition</h2><br>
<p>Significant masonry damage had been sustained during hurricanes and tropical storms during its lifetime. Though this damage has been largely repaired, the fort continues to be under threat from erosion. The fort sits on the east end of Dauphin Island, only feet from the Gulf of Mexico. Ongoing erosional losses of sand dunes and beach total up to 10 feet per year. For these reasons, the Civil War Preservation Trust placed Fort Gaines on its History Under Siege listing on March 18, 2009. The listing identifies the ten most endangered Civil War battlefields in the United States. Additionally it was placed on the list of America&#39;s 11 Most Endangered Historic Places by the National Trust for Historic Preservation in 2011.</p><br>
<h2>Civil War</h2><br>
<p>Fort Morgan is a historic masonry pentagonal bastion fort at the mouth of Mobile Bay, Alabama, United States. Named for American Revolutionary War hero Daniel Morgan, it was built on the site of the earlier Fort Bowyer, an earthen and stockade-type fortification involved in the final land battles of the War of 1812. Construction was completed in 1834, and it received its first garrison in March of the same year.</p><br>
<p>Fort Morgan is at the tip of Mobile Point at the western terminus of State Route 180 (Alabama). It and Dauphin Island, on which Fort Gaines is situated, enclose Mobile Bay. The Alabama Historical Commission maintains the site.</p><br>
<h2>War of 1812</h2><br>
<p>After the departure of the Spanish from Mobile in April 1813, the United States built an earth and wood redoubt on Mobile Point, ultimately naming it Fort Bowyer after Col. John Bowyer, who completed the construction before leaving in 1814. In September 1814, the fort withstood a British naval and land attack, known as the First Battle of Fort Bowyer. The British returned in February 1815 after their defeat at the Battle of New Orleans and again launched an attack that became known as the Second Battle of Fort Bowyer. This time they were successful, with its American garrison surrendering the fort. Before the British could continue their attack towards Mobile, Alabama, they received word that the Treaty of Ghent, ending the war, had been signed on Christmas Eve, 1814. When word of the treaty&#39;s ratification arrived shortly thereafter, the British withdrew. The site was a logical one for a more substantial fort that could defend itself from landward and protect the entrance to the bay, leading to Fort Morgan replacing Fort Bowyer.</p><br>
<h2>Construction</h2><br>
<p>After the War of 1812, the United States began a program to strengthen its seacoast defenses. As part of this program, in 1818, the USA Army contracted with Benjamin Hopkins of Vermont to build a large masonry fort on Mobile Point after a design by Simon Bernard, who had been a military engineer for Napoleon. However, Hopkins died a year later in a yellow fever epidemic, having accomplished little. The following contractor, Samuel Hawkins of New York, died in 1821 before completing anything on the project. The USA Army turned the task over to the United States Army Corps of Engineers under Captain René Edward De Russy. Using enslaved laborers, De Russy made some progress before he became sick in 1825 and turned the work over to his deputy, Lieutenant Cornelius Ogden. Ogden completed the work in March 1834 and turned the fort over to Captain F.S. Belton, commander of Company B, 2nd USA Artillery. This unit remained at the fort for about a year and a half before its transfer to Florida to assist in the Second Seminole War. Multiple concrete arches have been embedded into the walls of Fort Morgan from the beginning of the American Civil War to today.</p><br>
<h2>Civil War</h2><br>
<p>Eight days before Alabama declared secession from the United States, Colonel John B. Todd attacked the fort with four companies of Alabama volunteers, capturing it before dawn on 3 January 1861. The Confederates then proceeded to strengthen the defenses of Mobile Bay. The key point was the Main Ship Channel opposite Fort Morgan, as this was the only approach where the water was deep enough to permit major warships to pass. To defend this area, the Confederates placed 18 of the fort&#39;s heaviest guns (including two 7-inch Brooke rifles and two British-made 8-inch Blakely rifles) so that they could bear on the channel. They also built redoubts and trenches east of the fort to impede any attack via land. Lastly, they complemented the land defenses with a small flotilla consisting of the ram, and three gunboats, and, all under the command of Admiral Franklin Buchanan.</p><br>
<p>Fort Morgan provided protective fire for blockade runners during the war. All 17 vessels that ran out of the bay eluded capture, as did 19 of the 21 that attempted to enter. After Confederates observed USA Army soldiers in the Sand Island Lighthouse reconnoitering Fort Morgan, the fort fired on the island, destroying the lighthouse.</p><br>
<p>During the Battle of Mobile Bay on 5 August 1864, United States Navy forces under Admiral David G. Farragut passed Fort Morgan and entered Mobile Bay. Farragut captured the Tennessee and the Selma, forced the beaching and burning of Gaines, and captured Fort Gaines. This freed USA Army units under USA Major General Gordon Granger to besiege Fort Morgan. After two weeks of bombardment from sea and land, Richard Lucian Page, commander of the fort, surrendered on 23 August 1864, after first spiking the forts guns. During the siege, the wooden roof of the forts citadel, a ten-sided barracks located in the center of the fort used to house the enlisted men, caught fire and the structure was badly damaged. Rather than restore it, post-war crews used the ruins as a brick source for repairing the fort. The remains of the citadel were razed in the 1880s for use as a breakwater.</p><br>
<p>Once again under USA control, the USA Army used it as a base for reconnaissance raids and then as a staging area for the Battle of Spanish Fort and the Battle of Fort Blakeley, which occurred days before General Robert E. Lee surrendered at the Battle of Appomattox Court House.</p><br>
<h2>Late 19th century</h2><br>
<p>During a renovation project in the 1870s, the fort received 12 200-pounder Parrott rifled cannons. Eventually, the USA Government abandoned the fort, letting it fall into disrepair. Then, under the presidency of Grover Cleveland, Secretary of War William Endicott chaired the Endicott Board, which led to a program of building new concrete batteries. Between 1895 and 1900, Fort Morgan received five concrete batteries with fire control, electricity, and communications.</p><br>
<p>The first battery, Battery Bowyer, was operational during the Spanish–American War. It had four 8-inch breech-loading guns on disappearing carriages. The battery closed in 1917, and the guns were removed for conversion to railway guns for service in Europe in World War I.</p><br>
<p>At the beginning of the Spanish–American War, Fort Morgan also received eight 10-inch smooth-bore muzzle-loading Rodman cannons, converted to 8-inch rifles with the insertion of a barrel sleeve. This was a makeshift, and the USA Army later gave the guns away to cities for Civil War memorials.</p><br>
<p>The second battery, completed in 1900, was Battery Dearborn, named for Major General Henry Dearborn. The battery had eight breech-loading 12-inch coast defense mortars in two four-gun pits. The intent was that the mortars would rain down shells on the vessels&#39; less heavily armored decks if enemy vessels approached.</p><br>
<p>The third battery, also completed in 1900, was Battery Duportail, named for Major General Louis Lebègue Duportail. Its armament consisted of two 12-inch breech-loading rifles on disappearing carriages. The battery was decommissioned in 1923. The Army removed the breechblocks and plugged the breeches before abandoning the guns. The Army scrapped the guns in the early 1940s.</p><br>
<p>The fourth battery was Battery Thomas, named for Captain Evan Thomas, who had been killed in the Battle of Sand Butte in 1873 during the Modoc War. This batterys armament consisted of two British 4.7-inch rapid-fire Armstrong guns. The batterys role was to prevent smaller enemy vessels from passing through the ship&#39;s channel in front of the fort. The battery was deactivated in 1917, and its guns were removed.</p><br>
<p>The fifth battery was Battery Schenk, named for Lieutenant William T. Schenck, who was killed in action in Luzon in 1900 during the Philippine–American War. The battery initially held two, later increased to three, 3-inch rapid-fire guns. It also protected the ship channel.</p><br>
<h2>20th century</h2><br>
<p>Hurricanes in 1906 and in July 1916 caused great damage to the wooden houses at Fort Morgan along Officer&#39;s Row. The wide porches that helped cool the buildings in summer were particularly vulnerable.</p><br>
<p>In 1915, the United States Army Coast Artillery Corps (CAC) built an experimental battery called Battery Test about a mile from Fort Morgan. The battery held a single 10-inch gun on a disappearing carriage. Then in 1916, the Navy had two battleships, the and the, shell the battery for two days to see how well it would survive, which it did with remarkably little damage. The gun was removed shortly after the tests.</p><br>
<p>After the United States declared war on Germany in April 1917, the fort trained CAC soldiers in modern weapons. The fort also trained field anti-aircraft batteries. In 1920 the fort received four British 9.2-inch howitzers. These guns were abandoned and scrapped in 1924 when the Army abandoned the fort. Thereafter, the base deteriorated.</p><br>
<p>During World War I, the Army established a radio transmitting and receiving station at Fort Morgan as a part of a nationwide Morse-code communication network. The transmitter had the call letters WUR. When Fort Morgan was abandoned, the call letters were transferred to Fort McClellan, Alabama.</p><br>
<p>In April 1942, the Army re-occupied the fort and constructed an adjacent airfield. Initially, the CAC brought five Model 1918 155mm (6.1-inch) guns to equip the fort. The Army placed two on top of Fort Morgan on mounts that permitted 360 degrees traverse. The remaining three guns stood on the fort&#39;s parade ground.</p><br>
<p>The United States Department of War turned Fort Morgan over to Alabama in 1946, and the Army completely abandoned the fort in 1947.</p><br>
<h2>Recent developments</h2><br>
<p>Fort Morgan was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1960.</p><br>
<p>In 2007 it was listed as "one of the nations 10 most endangered battle sites" by the Civil War Preservation Trust in History Under Siege: A Guide to Americas Most Endangered Civil War Battlefields.</p><br>
<p>In June 2008, a 90-pound live Union naval shell was uncovered at the site. The shell was from a Parrott rifle on a USA Navy warship and was fired at the fort in the summer of 1864. The discovery came during excavations as part of a project meant to repair cracks in the walls.</p><br>
<p>The Byrd Theatre is a cinema in the Carytown neighborhood of Richmond, Virginia. It was named after William Byrd II, the founder of the city. The theater opened on December 24, 1928 to much excitement and is affectionately referred to as "Richmond’s Movie Palace". Though equipped with a Wurlitzer pipe organ, the theatre was also one of the first of its kind to be originally outfitted for sound motion pictures.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Built in 1928, the theater cost $900,000 (inflation adjusted equivalent $12,430,000 in 2014) to construct. The builders were Charles Somma and Walter Coulter.</p><br>
<p>The Byrd Theatre opened for the first time on December 24, 1928. At the time, adult tickets were 50 cents for evening shows and 25 cents for matinees, while a child&#39;s ticket was only 10 cents. The first movie was the film Waterfront, a First National film starring Dorothy Mackaill and Jack Mulhall. In addition, the manager at the time was Robert Coulter, who remained the manager until his retirement in 1971, and is rumored to haunt the theatre. In 1953, the original 35mm Simplex standards were replaced by newer projectors of the same model.</p><br>
<p>The Byrd was originally segregated. The balcony was intended to accommodate African-Americans, but instead the theater did not open its doors to blacks until the 1960s. Until then, if a black person came to the theater, he or she would be given admission and cab fare to any of the black theaters in the city.</p><br>
<p>the theatre plays second-run movies for $8.00 per ticket with the exception of certain festivals such as the Richmond French Film Festival, held annually in March; however, in March of 2023 the theatre announced it would be unable to hold the festival that year, and the festival was discontinued in 2024. In 2007, the Byrd discontinued regular playing of classic movies at midnight shows on Saturday nights due to dwindling attendance.</p><br>
<p>On March 15, 2024, William Shatner hosted the world premiere of his biographical documentary William Shatner: You Can Call Me Bill at the Byrd.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The theatre&#39;s architect and contractor was Fred Bishop, and is considered to be of a French Empire style design. Inside, the theatre contains orchestra seating (main) for 916 and balcony seating for 476. The balcony is open whenever attendance requires and occasionally at other times by making a donation to the Byrd Theatre Foundation. The interior features a lavish design by the Arthur Brunet Studios of New York. In addition to eleven Czechoslovakian crystal chandeliers, including an 18-foot, two-and-a-half ton chandelier suspended over the auditorium (with over 5,000 crystals illuminated by 500 red, blue, green and amber lights), the interior features imported Italian and Turkish marble, hand-sewn velvet drapes, and oil on canvas murals of Greek mythology. More unusual features included a central vacuum system and a natural spring and pool in the basement which used to supply water to the air conditioning system.</p><br>
<p>Built during the transition between silent and talking pictures, the designers outfitted the theatre with two sound systems. One of these was Vitaphone, a relatively new sound synchronization system using phonograph records that was commercially developed by Warner Brothers. "The Jazz Singer," generally acknowledged as the first talking film, was recorded using this system. The other original sound system was from Western Electric. Because at the time there was uncertainty whether "talkies" would continue to be popular and a significant number of the films distributed were still silent, the Byrd also included a Wurlitzer Theatre organ.</p><br>
<h3>Wurlitzer organ</h3><br>
<p>The Wurlitzer organ of the Byrd Theatre is housed in four rooms on the fourth floor above the stage. The basement also houses a vacuum blower for the piano and an elevator room which raises the organ console to stage level for performances. There is an electrical and pneumatic switching system that aids the organist in choosing which pipes and other devices to use (all of the pipe work, bells, drums, and other effects are acoustic and not electronic). As the sound level of the pipes themselves cannot be changed, the sound levels in the actual auditorium are controlled by large slats called swell shades that open and close to control the volume and a tone chute that carries the sound from the fourth floor.</p><br>
<p>There is a Lyon and Healy harp which is purely ornamental and does not play, along with a marimba that does play from the organ console in the right box. In the left box there is a Wurlitzer grand piano which can be played from the organ console or its own keyboard and a 37-note xylophone that plays from the console.</p><br>
<p>House organists have been Carl Rhond, Wilma Beck, Waldo S. Newberry, Slim Mathis, Bill Dalton, Harold Warner, Eddie Weaver, Art Brown, James Hughes, Lin Lunde, and Bob Lent. In the 1950s, Dick Leibert made recordings playing the organ. The Wurlitzer is still played Saturday nights by current house organist Bob Gulledge.</p><br>
<h2>Preservation</h2><br>
<p>From 2007 to 2014, the Byrd Theatre Foundation raised more than $1 million for replacing the roof, renovating the heating and cooling units, and investing in digital projection. In 2017 the center section of seats on the main floor were removed and replaced with 236 new seats and an ADA platform. The new rows of seats are further apart than the originals offering much needed leg room. The remaining seat frames are still original, and though some are torn, most of the upstairs patterned mohair-covered upholstery is still original. In 2006 a Dolby Digital sound system was installed, having been personally donated by the system&#39;s creator Ray Dolby after touring the theatre two years prior.</p><br>
<p>In 2010, a thief stole the "Byrd Cage" donation box, probably netting less than $100 but causing about $1,200 worth of damage to the front doors. Media coverage following the event, however, inspired Richmonders to donate much needed money for the landmark.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Richmond-born musician Lucy Dacus filmed the music video for her song "Hot and Heavy" at the Byrd Theatre and shot the cover art for her third album Home Video at the Theatre as well.</p><br>
<p>The Albany Rural Cemetery was established October 7, 1844, in Menands, New York, United States, just outside the city of Albany, New York. It is renowned as one of the most beautiful, pastoral cemeteries in the USA, at over 400 acre. Many historical American figures are buried there.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>On April 2, 1841, an association was formed to bring the cemetery into being. A committee of the association selected the site on April 20, 1844. The cemetery originally contained 100 acre. This portion was consecrated October 7, 1844. Daniel D. Barnard delivered the dedication address, which was one of many given at rural cemeteries across the northeast in the years from Justice Joseph Storys address at Mount Auburn Cemetery in 1831 to Lincolns Gettysburg Address in 1863. The first interment was made in May, 1845. Located near the entrance is the Louis Menand House.</p><br>
<p>David Bates Douglass, a military and civilian engineer, working in the capacity as a consulting architect, designed the landscape layout of Albany Rural Cemetery, between 1845 and 1846. He modeled his design of the Albany Rural Cemetery, as well as his subsequent and final one, Mount Hermon Cemetery, in a rural area outside of Quebec City, Canada East, upon his first design, the highly acclaimed Green-Wood Cemetery, in what at the time was a rural section of Brooklyn. All three of Douglass&#39; garden cemeteries have been conferred a historic status, by their respective jurisdictions.</p><br>
<p>In 1868, bodies from other cemeteries were removed and reinterred in Albany Rural Cemetery.</p><br>
<h2>Notable burials</h2><br>
<p>The cemetery has a number of notable burials, particularly of 19th century New York State politicians and industrialists, and figures relating to the history of the Adirondack Park.</p><br>
<p>President Chester A. Arthur (1829–1886) – the 21st President of the United States, was interred with his wife Ellen Lewis Herndon Arthur, (1837–1880). His memorial was designed by Ephraim Keyser and dedicated on June 15, 1889. Friends of the former president contributed a fund that provided $10,000 for the memorial and for a statue that was erected in New York City.</p><br>
<p>Erastus Corning (1794–1872) – Founder and president of the New York Central Railroad.</p><br>
<p>Erastus Corning 2nd (1909–1983) – Great-grandson of Erastus Corning and the mayor of Albany for 41 years. He is also in the Corning family plot.</p><br>
<p>Anne Darling (1913–1991) – Actor best known as the shepherdess in Bride of Frankenstein.</p><br>
<p>Charles Fort (1874–1932) – American writer and researcher who specialized in anomalous phenomena.</p><br>
<p>Peter Gansevoort (1749–1812) – Colonel in the Continental Army and later a brigadier general in the US Army. Known for leading the defense of Fort Stanwix during the Saratoga Campaign.</p><br>
<p>Jack Gwillim (1909–2001) – English character actor well-known for having portrayed Poseidon in Clash of the Titans.</p><br>
<p>James Hall Jr. (1811–1898) – Geologist and paleontologist.</p><br>
<p>Learned Hand (1872–1961) – Judge on the USA District Court for the Southern District of New York from 1909 to 1924 and on the USA Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit from 1924 to his death.</p><br>
<p>Lansing Hotaling (1839–1909) – District Attorney of Albany County and member of the New York State Assembly</p><br>
<p>Edward Burton Hughes (1905–1987) – Acting Commissioner of New York State Department of Transportation in 1969, Executive Deputy Commissioner of New York State Department of Transportation (1967–70), and Deputy Superintendent of New York State Department of Public Works (1952–1967). Upon his retirement in 1970 Hughes founded the E. Burton Hughes Achievement Award.</p><br>
<p>Daniel Manning (1831–1887) – Journalist, politician and banker and served as Secretary of the Treasury under President Grover Cleveland.</p><br>
<p>Mary Margaretta Fryer Manning (1844–1928) – President General of the Daughters of the American Revolution</p><br>
<p>William Learned Marcy (1786–1857) – American statesman, who served as USA Senator, Governor of New York, USA Secretary of War and USA Secretary of State. When he died in 1857, relatives recalled that Marcy "frequently expressed the wish to be buried where he had spent so much time in reading and in contemplation".</p><br>
<p>Erastus Dow Palmer (1817–1904) – Sculptor. He worked in an Albany studio producing statuary and portrait busts for many years before he died in 1904. He produced two statues which are displayed at the United States Capitol Building in Washington, D.C. the Robert Livingston Statue and "Peace in Bondage". Several of Mr. Palmer&#39;s works adorn markers at the cemetery, one of which is titled "The Angel at the Sepulchre" – the Banks plot. Palmer also designed the granite monument at the grave of William Learned Marcy, USA Senator and three-term Governor of New York.</p><br>
<p>William Paterson (1745–1806) – USA Senator and Governor of New Jersey and a signatory to the Constitution of the United States. Paterson ended his career as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court, serving until his death. He is interred in the same plot as his son-in-law, Stephen Van Rensselaer.</p><br>
<p>Rufus Wheeler Peckham (1809–1873) – New York Court of Appeals judge and USA congressman who was lost at sea. There is a cenotaph in his honor in the Peckham family plot.</p><br>
<p>Rufus Wheeler Peckham (1838–1909) – associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States (1895–1909) – in the Peckham family plot.</p><br>
<p>Wheeler Hazard Peckham (1833–1905) – Prominent New York City lawyer and a failed nominee to the Supreme Court. He is buried in the Peckham family plot.</p><br>
<p>Peggy Schuyler (1758–1801) – Sister-in-law to Alexander Hamilton.</p><br>
<p>Philip Pieterse Schuyler (1628–1683) – progenitor of the Schuyler family, the Livingston family and the ancestor of the Bush family.</p><br>
<p>Gilbert R. Spalding (1812–1880) – Showman and circus owner in the Spalding and Robbins family plot.</p><br>
<p>Ambrose Spencer (1765–1848) – New York lawyer, judge and politician, is also buried nearby.</p><br>
<p>John Canfield Spencer (1788–1855) – Secretary of War and Secretary of the Treasury under President John Tyler and a failed nominee to the Supreme Court, buried in the Spencer family plot.</p><br>
<p>Frances Starr (1886–1973) – American stage, film and television actress.</p><br>
<p>Kate Stoneman (1841–1925) – An early 20th-century suffragist and the first woman admitted to the New York State Bar Association.</p><br>
<p>Ebby Thacher (1896–1966) – an early member of Alcoholics Anonymous, the best friend and sponsor of the co-founder William Wilson (Bill W.)</p><br>
<p>Franklin Townsend (1821–1898) – A 19th-century industrialist, active in his family&#39;s iron business which was a branch of the Stirling Iron Works, the maker of the Hudson River Chain that prevented the British Royal Navy from sailing up the Hudson River during the American Revolutionary War. He was active in Albany politics, serving as an alderman and one term as mayor of the city. He served as adjutant general of the state of New York from 1869 to 1873 and is interred with his wife.</p><br>
<p>John Van Buren (1810–1866) – son of President Martin Van Buren. John Van Buren, a handsome attorney known as "Prince John", died at sea on October 13, 1866, while on the voyage from Liverpool to New York. His grave is marked by an Italian marble cross.</p><br>
<p>General Stephen Van Rensselaer (1764–1839) – the last patroon, who died in 1839, was founder of the scientific school which later became Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.</p><br>
<p>Thomas Kirby Van Zandt (1814–1886) – a noted painter of horses.</p><br>
<p>Alice Morgan Wright (1881–1975) – Modernist sculptor, co-founder of New York State League of Women Voters, Recording Secretary for Woman Suffrage Party, co-founder of the National Women&#39;s Party, and Founder of the Humane Education Society.</p><br>
<p>Thurlow Weed (1797–1882) – New York newspaper publisher and Whig and Republican politician; marked by a spire, corner lot.</p><br>
<h2>Commemorations</h2><br>
<p>Philip Schuyler – A 36 ft doric column at Lot 2, Section 29 commemorates General Philip Schuyler, major general in the Continental Army, delegate to the Continental Congress, one of the first two United States senators elected from New York, and descendant of Philip Pieterse Schuyler.</p><br>
<p>Two monuments within this cemetery incorporate works in bronze by the sculptor Oscar Lenz. Lenz created The Angel of The Resurrection and frieze on the Parsons family monument, as well as the relief of a seated warrior receiving a bouquet of poppies from the Angel of Death on George Porter Hilton&#39;s mausoleum.</p><br>
<p>The Parque de Bombas  is a historic former fire station in Ponce, Puerto Rico. It is one of Puerto Rico&#39;s most notable buildings, with some considering it "by far the most easily recognized landmark in the Island."</p><br>
<p>The Parque de Bombas is located at the Plaza Las Delicias town square, directly behind Ponce Cathedral. Originally built in 1882 as a pavilion for an exhibition, it became Puerto Rico&#39;s first ever fire station. In 1990, the fire station closed and was converted into a museum. It was listed in the National Register of Historic Places on 12 July 1984.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The structure was built as the main exhibit pavilion for the 1882 Exhibition Trade Fair. The Madrid-based central government assigned the task of designing and constructing it to a Spanish Army officer, Lt. Colonel Máximo de Meana y Guridi who was also a trained architect and later served as Mayor of the city.</p><br>
<p>The building was unveiled at the fair. After the fair concluded, the pavilion became a fire station. The first firefighters to work in the building were stationed on 2 February 1883. In 1885, its official name was changed to Estación de Bomberos de Ponce (Ponce Fire Station).</p><br>
<p>In 1920, the building was used briefly as the Mayor&#39;s office as a result of the 1918 San Fermín earthquake that affected the city during that year.</p><br>
<p>In 1967 and due to the distinctive appearance and central location of this firehouse, the Ponce municipal flag was designed using the red and black colors of its iconic firehouse as its base colors. The Fireman&#39;s Band, originally played weekly concerts from an open second floor stage attached to Parque de Bombas. Now known as the Ponce Municipal Band, the band continues to play every Sunday evening, though in different locations. On 12 May 1960, a new fire station was built nearby at the junction of Calle Mayor and Calle Cristina. This new structure became the main fire station for the city, reducing Parque de Bombas to a secondary role.</p><br>
<h2>Cultural significance</h2><br>
<p>Since 1885, Parque de Bombas has been, and it is, an important cultural institution in Ponce. Its colors represent the city, its unique style represents a progressive and dynamic cultural center. The Banda Municipal de Ponce (formerly, the Firemans Band), originally played weekly concerts from an open second floor stage attached to Parque de Bombas, now continues its plays every Sunday evening. Called "Retretas", they are part of a cultural program and tradition of the city of Ponce. The structures extremely unusual format represents the brave firemen of Ponce, and its history. An inscription at Parque de Bombas reads, "This building is a symbol and commemoration of the importance vested by the residents of Ponce in the service, self-denial and courage of the Ponce Firefighters Corps. It is for this reason that the Ponce Firefighters Corps remains symbolically on this Plaza, in the heart of the city of Ponce." In 1943, the Firemen Services of Puerto Rico was created by legislation. Its main commitment is to extinguish fires, prevent fires, rescue services in natural disasters or emergencies, and to service the community.</p><br>
<h2>Appearance</h2><br>
<p>The basic structure measure 65-8" in width by 26-3" in length. It is two stories high with a tower at each corner of the Calle Marina front facade. The building is located in the city&#39;s central "Las Delicias Plaza" and it is attached to the Cathedral of Ponce at its rear boundary. Structurally, it is a wooden frame building with a pitched roof covered with galvanized zinc sheets. Exterior cladding is horizontal 1" by 6" wooden siding. Doors and windows are wooden. The windows are of the fixed louvered type, long, narrow, and crowned by an oversized fixed fan light.</p><br>
<p>The building&#39;s layout is a large, central space, flanked by two lateral towers, two stories in height, which opens to the main central area. The main central area is used as garage facilities for the fire trucks, and the two lateral towers are used as living quarters and exhibition areas. An elegant central two-sided stairway with elaborated cast iron railing leads to a mezzanine area used as administrative offices.</p><br>
<p>Some interior partitions were removed from the first floor when the structure was altered for its new use as a firehouse in order to accommodate the machinery. The building has been kept in good condition throughout the years.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>Meana designed the building with a strong Moorish influence, including its basic rectangular plan with towers at its front corners, its ornate façade, its long and narrow windows with fans at its top and its bright colored paint scheme. Gothic revival architecture was also an influence. The building is painted red and black, Ponces official colors. The interior is also very colorful, with vertical stripes of red and orange on the walls and a painted frieze with a firemans motif.</p><br>
<h2>Museum</h2><br>
<p>After 108 years of service, Parque de Bombas was vacated by the Puerto Rico Firefighters Corps in 1990. It was converted into a museum of firefighting. The architect in charge of its restoration was Pablo Ojeda ONeill. The newer fire station was taken over by the Instituto de Música Juan Morel Campos in 2008. Ponces central fire station is now located 1 km east of Parque de Bombas on Miguel Pou Boulevard.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The firehouse is featured on the front cover of La Sonora Ponceña&#39;s LP salsa album titled "Fuego en el 23!".</p><br>
<p>The Home of Franklin D. Roosevelt National Historic Site preserves the Springwood estate in Hyde Park, New York, United States. Springwood was the birthplace, lifelong home, and burial place of the 32nd president of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt. Eleanor Roosevelt is buried alongside him. The National Historic Site was established in 1945.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Early history</h3><br>
<p>In 1697, the English Crown awarded a 220 square miles land grant (the "Great Nine Partners Patent") to a group of nine businessmen from New York City who had purchased the land from the native Wappinger people. The parcel extended from the Hudson River on the west to the border with Connecticut on the east. To ensure equal access to the river for all partners, the land along its shore was divided into nine "Water Lots&quot Springwood is located on the one granted to William Creed.</p><br>
<p>While the early history of the house on the Springwood estate remains unclear, it is believed that the central portion of the present-day home is formed by a large Federal style farmhouse constructed around the year 1800. In 1845 the estate was purchased by Josiah Wheeler, a merchant from New York City. He remodeled the structure in the then-fashionable Italianate style, expanding it to 15 rooms with a three-story tower at the south end and front and rear piazzas spanning the length of the home.</p><br>
<h3>Roosevelt ownership</h3><br>
<p>In 1866, the estate, which had been reduced to approximately one square mile (2.5 square kilometers), was bought by James Roosevelt, Sr., Franklin D. Roosevelts father, for US$40,000, at a time when a textile workers earnings were less than a dollar a day. The property featured a stable and horse track, which was important to James, an avid horse breeder. Through his death, 34 years later in 1900, James made many improvements to the home and property. He enlarged the servants&#39; wing, adding two rooms, and had a spacious carriage house built in the vicinity.</p><br>
<p>In 1882, Franklin was born in what was then the second floor tower bedroom at the south end of the home. At the time, it functioned as the master bedroom; the bedroom which he, and later his sons, used during boyhood is nearby on the same floor. In 1905, after he and Eleanor Roosevelt married, the young couple moved in with his mother, Sara. The estate remained the center of Roosevelt&#39;s life in all stages of his career.</p><br>
<p>In 1915, Franklin, together with his mother, undertook a final major enlargement and remodeling of the home. This both accommodated his growing family and created an environment suitable for entertaining political associates which reflected his ambitions. Roosevelt contributed many ideas for the new design, tempered by his mothers means. She commissioned the design work from the firm of Hoppin & Koen, of New York City. The home was more than doubled in size by adding two large fieldstone wings (designed by Roosevelt), a tower, and a third story with a flat roof. The clapboard exterior was replaced with stucco and most of the porch was replaced with a balustraded fieldstone terrace and a small columned portico around the entrance. These alterations gave the exterior of the house the look of a The interior, while retaining much of the original layout, was redesigned primarily with the aim of housing Roosevelts growing collections of books, paintings, stamps, and coins. The remodeling work was finished within one year in 1916. Roosevelt also changed the appearance of the surrounding land by extensive tree plantings. Between 1911, when the large scale planting started, and Roosevelt&#39;s death in 1945, more than 400,000 trees were planted on the estate. Eventually, large portions of the estate were turned into an experimental forestry station under an agreement with the Forestry Department of Syracuse University.</p><br>
<p>During his presidency from March 4, 1933, until his death on April 12, 1945, Franklin made almost 200 visits to Springwood, although he eventually built wheelchair-friendly Top Cottage nearby as a home of his own. The main estate functioned as a "Summer White House" where the President hosted his political associates and other prominent national and international figures. In June 1939, when King George VI and Queen Elizabeth, accompanied by Prime Minister of Canada William Lyon Mackenzie King as minister in attendance, made the first visit of a reigning British monarch to the United States, they were hosted at Springwood. Other guests included British prime minister Winston Churchill, as well as European royalty such as Queen Wilhelmina, Princess Juliana, and Princess Beatrix of the Netherlands, and Crown Prince Olaf and Crown Princess Märtha of Norway. Further, Roosevelt used the estate as a retreat for himself and his political associates on the eves of three of the four elections in which he ran for president. When the incoming results indicated that he had won the election, he would go onto the front terrace to deliver his victory speech.</p><br>
<p>Roosevelt made his last visit to Springwood in the final week of March 1945, about two weeks before his death. At his own wish he was buried near the sundial in the Rose Garden on April 15, 1945. His wife was buried at his side after her death in 1962. Also interred there are Fala, their famous Scottish Terrier, and Chief, a German Shepherd also owned by FDR.</p><br>
<h3>Donation to the United States</h3><br>
<p>In 1941, Roosevelt dedicated his papers and a new building to house them on the estate to the public, as the Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum. In 1943—two years before he died in office—Roosevelt donated the entirety of the estate (except for Val-Kill, which had been given to Eleanor) to the American people under the condition that his family maintained a lifetime right to usage of the property. On November 21, 1945, after the family had relinquished its rights, the estate was transferred to the USA Department of the Interior. Since then, the estate has been administered by the National Park Service as a National Historic Site and is open to the public. In 2005, the site covered a total area of more than a square mile and received 108,611 visitors.</p><br>
<h2>Rooms</h2><br>
<h3>Entrance Hall</h3><br>
<p>The walls of the entrance hall are mostly covered with paintings from Roosevelt&#39;s collection. On display are mainly naval paintings as well as some historical cartoons. Specimens from his boyhood collection of birds are also on display, as well as a sculpture of him when he was 29. In the corner behind the main staircase is a manually operated trunk elevator, which the disabled president used to move between floors.</p><br>
<h3>Living room and library</h3><br>
<p>The living room and library was the place where Roosevelt worked on his private collections; he accumulated a personal library of approximately 14,000 volumes, over 2,000 naval paintings, prints, and lithographs, over 300 bird specimens, over 200 ship models, 1.2 million stamps, as well as thousands of coins, banknotes, campaign buttons, and medallions.</p><br>
<h3>Music room</h3><br>
<p>The music room (also known as the "Dresden Room" for the origin of some of the porcelain) is a formal parlor which contains many Chinese pieces of porcelain and lacquer-ware. These were acquired when the family of Roosevelts mother stayed in China, where her father made a fortune in the China trade. Together with the adjacent dining room, this part of the house was the setting for the formal entertaining of guests. A collection of autographed photographs of some of the Roosevelts more famous guests is kept in the room on the piano.</p><br>
<h3>Bedrooms of Eleanor and Franklin Roosevelt</h3><br>
<p>During the enlargement of the house in 1915 a suite of rooms was created for Eleanor and Franklin Roosevelt in one of the new wings. Originally these rooms included a sitting room and two dressing rooms, but after Roosevelt was diagnosed with poliomyelitis in 1921, one of the dressing rooms was converted into a separate bedroom for his wife Eleanor and the sitting room into a bedroom for his mother Sara.</p><br>
<h3>The "Snuggery"</h3><br>
<p>The Snuggery was used by Roosevelt&#39;s mother, Sara, for beginning her day and conducting her business of running the household. The room was created in its present form during the extensive remodeling of 1915 by a division of the old South Parlor into a gallery and the Snuggery. Because most of the furniture of the old parlor was retained despite the reduction in size, the Snuggery has a cluttered appearance.</p><br>
<p>The Washington State Capitol  in Olympia is the home of the government of the State of Washington. It contains the chambers of the Washington State Legislature, offices for the governor, lieutenant governor, secretary of state, and state treasurer. It is part of a larger administrative campus including buildings for the Washington Supreme Court, the Washington Governor&#39;s Mansion, and many other state agencies.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>After Olympia became the capital city of the Washington Territory in 1853, the citys founder, Edmund Sylvester, gave the legislature 12 acres of land upon which to build the capitol, located on a hill overlooking what is now known as Capitol Lake. A two-story wood-frame building was constructed on the site, where the legislature met starting in 1854. When President Benjamin Harrison approved Washingtons state constitution in 1889, he donated 132,000 acres of federal lands to the state with the stipulation that income from the lands was to be used solely for construction of the state capitol.</p><br>
<p>The legislature formed the State Capitol Commission in 1893 to oversee the creation of a new capitol on the property in Olympia. The commission had a nationwide competition to find an architect and chose the submission of Ernest Flagg. Construction began on Flagg&#39;s plan, but was soon stalled by poor economic conditions with only the foundation completed. When the legislature finally approved an appropriation of additional funds in 1897, newly elected Governor John Rogers vetoed it. Rogers advocated the purchase of the existing Thurston County Courthouse in downtown Olympia, now known as the "Old Capitol" and home to the Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction. The legislature approved the new location and began meeting there in 1905.</p><br>
<p>The courthouse became the location of all agencies of the state government and within a few years the legislature decided the building was too small and a new State Capitol Commission convened in 1911. This time, the commission was interested in constructing a group of buildings to serve as the capitol rather than a single facility and selected the design submitted by the company Walter Wilder and Harry White. Wilder and White&#39;s designs were influenced by the Olmsted brothers who served as consultants from 1911 to 1912 and designed and supervised the landscaping for the campus from 1927 to 1931. Construction of the campus began in 1912, and the Temple of Justice was completed in 1920, followed by the Insurance Building and the power and heating plant. After multiple revisions of the plans, the Legislative Building was completed in 1928. Additional buildings on the campus were constructed during the next several decades.</p><br>
<p>The Capitol Campus was placed on the National Register of Historic Districts in 1974 and contains or contributes to some of the most valued views in the State including the Olympic Mountains, Puget Sound, Mt. Rainier, the Capitol Dome and the Capitol Group of buildings on the hill. The design of the Capitol Campus is a grand example of the City Beautiful style of the Progressive era of the early 20th Century.</p><br>
<h2>Buildings</h2><br>
<p>Located on the campus are the Legislative Building, Temple of Justice, John A. Cherberg Senate office building, Irv Newhouse Senate office building, Insurance Building, John L. OBrien House office building, Joel M. Pritchard Building, and several other office buildings. The Capitol Conservatory, built in 1939 by the Works Progress Administration, housed various types of flora until it was permanently closed on September 5, 2008. The campus also hosts many veterans memorials.</p><br>
<p>The state seal, which is featured throughout the buildings on the state flag, tapestries, railing, door handles and elsewhere, was designed by Olympia Jeweler Charles Talcot by making two circles and putting a two-cent stamp of George Washington in the middle. There is even a bronze version of the seal in the floor of the rotunda. Over time, George Washington&#39;s nose has worn down due to foot traffic on it and it is now roped-off to prevent further damage.</p><br>
<h3>Legislative Building</h3><br>
<p>The Legislative Building houses the chambers of the Washington State Legislature and offices of several elected officials. This building is the dominant feature of the capitol grounds, with its dome 287 ft high, making it the tallest self-supporting masonry dome in the United States, and fifth tallest in the world, surpassed only by St. Peters Basilica in Rome, St. Pauls Cathedral in London, Global Vipassana Pagoda in Mumbai, and Santa Maria Del Fiore in Florence. A number of features in the structure commemorating Washingtons addition to the Union as the 42nd state—42 steps lead to the buildings North entrance and one of the four 42-star flags owned by the state is displayed in the State Reception Room. Flags with this number of stars were never official because of the admission of Idaho shortly after Washington.</p><br>
<p>The building has a rectangular footprint and is constructed of brick and concrete and faced on the exterior with sandstone quarried from Wilkeson, Washington. The structure consists of four floors with the dome at the center that reaches a height of 287 ft on the exterior and 175 ft from the floor. The first floor is within the raised base and houses offices. The second and third floors are surrounded by Doric columns and capped with a cornice that encircles the building. The fourth floor is covered with a gabled roof that is situated behind the cornice on the third floor. On the north facade, the entrance is in a portico framed by eight Corinthian columns reached by 42 granite steps. A similar portico is on the south facade but it covers a vehicle ramp to the lower level instead of steps. The dome is surrounded by four small sandstone domes and capped by a lantern and lightning rod. The floors and many interior walls are covered by Alaskan marble and marble from Belgium, France, Germany, Italy are used in other parts of the interior.</p><br>
<p>All lamps and Roman fire pots in the rotunda were made by Louis Comfort Tiffany, son of Charles Lewis Tiffany, founder of Tiffany and Company. These comprise the largest collection of Tiffany bronze in the world and Tiffany&#39;s last large commission before his death in 1933. The 10,000 lb chandelier above the rotunda is suspended 50 ft above the floor by a 101 ft chain and measures 25 ft tall. It could fit a full-size Volkswagen Beetle if put in sideways and features life-size faces, human figures, and 202 lights.</p><br>
<p>The Legislative Building is also home to a large brass bust of George Washington. Over time, the nose on the bust has become shiny from visitors rubbing it for good luck.</p><br>
<h3>Other buildings</h3><br>
<p>Facing the Legislative Building is the Temple of Justice, home to the State Supreme Court and the State Law Library. Until 1924, the unused boiler and coal rooms located under the Temple of Justice housed the Division of Highways Testing Laboratory, which would later become the Department of Transportation Materials Laboratory.</p><br>
<p>The Governors Mansion is located immediately west of the Legislative Building. Built before the rest of the capitol campus in 1908, the four-story Georgian-style mansion was intended as a temporary structure, and over the years the state legislature has considered replacing it with an office building or a new mansion. The legislature decided to renovate and remodel the existing building in 1973, and since then the private, non-profit Governors Mansion Foundation has maintained it.</p><br>
<h3>Art and monuments</h3><br>
<p>There are 19 major art installations and monuments on the campus. The Winged Victory monument, commemorating World War I, is one of the most prominent. Sculpted by Alonzo Victor Lewis from bronze, its granite pedestal has four inscriptions. Dedicated May 30, 1938, the monument has been restored numerous times since then. The Tivoli Fountain replica was designed by the architects Wohleb, Wohleb, and Bennett. Inscribed upon it is "Replica of the Tivoli Fountain—Tivoli Park, Copenhagen, Denmark. Presented to the State of Washington by Olympia-Tumwater Foundation. Peter G. Schmidt, President. 1953." Other points of interest include World War II, Korean War, Vietnam War, medal of honor, POW–MIA, and law enforcement memorials; monument to the family of early Washington pioneer George Bush; Arc of Statehood; Boiler Works; Du Pen Fountain; Mysteries of Life; Sea to Sky; The Shaman; an untitled sculpture by Lee Kelly (1973); Territorial Sundial; the Water Garden; and Woman Dancing. General George Washington, a colossal portrait by Avard Fairbanks, is placed in the reception room (another is installed at Washington University Medical School in Washington, D.C.).</p><br>
<p>In 1980 the Washington State Arts Commission commissioned large contemporary murals by Michael Spafford and Alden Mason for the House and Senate chambers. The Spafford mural was covered by a curtain after being displayed for less than a year, with critics of the work in the House chambers calling it "pornographic". Both Legislative Building murals were removed, from the Senate in 1987 and the House in 1993. Lawmakers also rejected plans for monumental murals by Jacob Lawrence to adorn the Capitol rotunda.</p><br>
<h3>Natural disasters</h3><br>
<p>Three major earthquakes have affected the capital since its construction. The first, in 1949, damaged the cupola of the Legislative Buildings dome so badly it had to be completely replaced. A 6.5 magnitude earthquake in 1965 had even worse results, with the domes brick buttresses left in such poor condition that a major aftershock could have caused them to collapse entirely, according to a state report. The state performed work after both earthquakes to reduce the impact of future occurrences, and performed additional seismic improvements in 1975. The Nisqually earthquake of 2001 caused further damage, including a splintered buttress, but the earthquake-resistance work prevented more serious harm to the building.</p><br>
<p>Wilder and White&#39;s designs for the dome, weighing 26,000 metric tons, called for the dome to be fixed to its supporting structures by gravity instead of by any bolts or fasteners. During an earthquake, the dome could shift, along with the sandstone columns supporting it. The columns moved as much as three inches (76 mm) during the Nisqually earthquake. Renovations completed in 2004 by Design Company EYP Architecture & Engineering fixed the dome permanently to the rest of the building.</p><br>
<h2>Quirks of law and security</h2><br>
<p>Because the Capitol grounds are outside the normal jurisdiction of Olympia and Thurston County, the sheriff and city police do not investigate crime on the Capitol campus. The Washington State Patrol is responsible for law enforcement and investigations on the Capitol grounds as well as at the Old Capitol Building and adjoining Sylvester Park in downtown Olympia. The Senate and House also have their own security staff.</p><br>
<p>After the September 11th attacks, there was a security checkpoint at the entrance to the Capitol building, complete with magnetometer and x-ray machine, but security has since reverted to its original state. Until 2021 the open carry of firearms was allowed in the building.</p><br>
<h2>Controversies</h2><br>
<p>In December 2008, an atheist sign was displayed adjacent to a nativity scene in the Capitol as part of a Christmas display; it was erected by the Freedom From Religion Foundation in response to the nativity scene. This sparked widespread media coverage and controversy; the sign was stolen, but eventually found and returned to the Capitol. There was a rapid influx of requests from individuals and groups wanting to display other material, including a Festivus pole and a request by the Westboro Baptist Church to display a sign saying (among other things) "Santa Claus will take you to hell."</p><br>
<p>Vistula Historic District is a designated historic district in the city of Toledo, Ohio, USA, listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The district comprises Toledo&#39;s oldest extant neighborhood and encompasses an area roughly bounded by Champlain, Summit, Walnut and Magnolia streets.</p><br>
<p>Vistula was a village established on land in what was then part of Michigan Territory, purchased in 1832 by Benjamin F. Stickney, in company with several investors from Lockport, New York, including Edward Bissell. In January 1833, Stickney platted the village of Vistula.</p><br>
<p>Another settlement, named Port Lawrence, had first been established in 1817, although the companies arranging sales of the land failed and nothing much was developed until a new plat was recorded for the village in 1833. This area encompassed roughly east to west from Jefferson to Washington Street and north to south, from Superior Street to the River, or slightly further upstream from where the Vistula settlement would later be established.</p><br>
<p>When Vistula and Port Lawrence merged to form the city of Toledo in 1837, the area which had been contested between Michigan and Ohio in the Toledo War was granted to Ohio by the United States Congress.</p><br>
<p>The Augusta Theater is a movie palace theater located in the city of Augusta, Kansas, which was built in about 1935. Designed by architect L. P. Larsen, the walls are decorated with large murals depicting classical scenes. It was the first theater to use neon lighting exclusively. Considered to be a landmark of the Art Deco era, it became home of the Augusta Arts Council.</p><br>
<p>In 1990, the Augusta Arts Council planned to proceed with renovations including restoration of the building&#39;s historic facade.</p><br>
<p>The theater is currently being restored. So far the neon lights on the front of the building have been restored. The murals on the sides of the theater are being restored currently.</p><br>
<p>Sloss Furnaces is a National Historic Landmark in Birmingham, Alabama in the United States. It operated as a pig iron-producing blast furnace from 1882 to 1971. After closing, it became one of the first industrial sites  in the USA to be preserved and restored for public use. In 1981, the furnaces were designated a National Historic Landmark by the United States Department of the Interior.</p><br>
<p>The site currently serves as an interpretive museum of industry and hosts a nationally recognized metal arts program. It also serves as a concert and festival venue. A new visitor center was built 2015 and opened in 2016. The furnace site, along a wide strip of land reserved in Birmingham&#39;s original city plan for railroads and industry, hosts thousands of students through their education programs per year. The museum is free to visit during their operating hours of Tuesday-Saturday 10:00 A.M to 4:00 P.M.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Colonel James Withers Sloss was one of the founders of Birmingham, helping to promote railroad development in Jones Valley, Alabama and participating in the Pratt Coke and Coal Company, one of the new citys first manufacturers. In 1881 he formed his own company, the Sloss Furnace Company, and began construction of Birminghams first blast furnace on 50 acres (202,000 m²) of land donated by the Elyton Land Company for industrial development. The engineer in charge of construction was Harry Hargreaves, a former student of English inventor Thomas Whitwell. The two Whitwell-type furnaces were 60 feet (18 m) tall and 18 feet (5.4 m) in diameter. The first blast was initiated in April 1882. The facility produced 24,000 tons of high quality iron during its first year of operation. Sloss iron won a bronze medal at the Southern Exposition held in 1883 at Louisville, Kentucky.</p><br>
<p>In 1886 Sloss retired and sold the company to a group of investors who reorganized it in 1899 as the Sloss-Sheffield Steel and Iron Company.</p><br>
<p>New blowers were installed in 1902, new boilers in 1906 and 1914 and the furnaces completely rebuilt with modern equipment between 1927 and 1929. In 1909 James Pickering Dovel had become the superintendent of construction. For the next 21 years, Sloss was Dovels workshop for invention. He developed gas cleaning equipment, modified the design of the furnaces, and improved the linings of the furnaces. In all, some 17 patents are credited to Dovel. Slosss No. 2 Furnace, rebuilt in 1927, included many of these inventions, earning Dovel and Sloss a national reputation for innovation. Through this aggressive campaign of modernization and expansion, including furnace and mining and quarrying operations all around Jefferson County, Sloss-Sheffield became the second largest seller of pig-iron in the district and among the largest in the world. During this period the company built 48 small cottages for black workers near the downtown furnace — a community that became known as "Sloss Quarters" or just "the quarters".</p><br>
<p>In 1952, the Sloss Furnaces were acquired by the USA Pipe and Foundry Company, and sold nearly two decades later in 1969 to the Jim Walter Corp. The Birmingham area had been suffering from a serious air pollution problem during the 1950s and 1960s due to the iron and steel industry there, and Federal legislation such as the USA Clean Air Act encouraged the closure of older and out-of-date smelting works. Also, by the early 1960s, higher-yielding brown ores from other regions were feeding the blast furnaces.</p><br>
<p>The Jim Walter company closed the furnaces two years later, and then donated the property to the Alabama State Fair Authority for possible development as a museum of industry. The authority determined that redevelopment was not feasible and made plans to demolish the furnaces. Local preservationists formed the Sloss Furnace Association to lobby for preservation of this site, which is of central importance to the history of Birmingham. In 1976, the site was documented for the Historic American Engineering Record and its historic significance was detailed in a study commissioned by the city. Birmingham voters approved a $3.3 million bond issue in 1977 to preserve the site. This money went towards stabilization of the main structures and the construction of a visitors center and the establishment of a metal arts program. The Sloss Furnaces site became a National Historic Landmark in 1981, and opened to the public as the nations first and only 20th century blast furnace site preserved as a museum on Labor Day weekend, 1983.</p><br>
<p>In February 2009, Sloss became the new home of the SLSF 4018 steam locomotive, which was relocated from Birmingham&#39;s Fair Park.</p><br>
<h2>Present use</h2><br>
<p>In June 2012, a formal groundbreaking ceremony was held at the site to commemorate the beginning of construction on a new 16,000 square foot Visitors and Education Center to be located on the south-west corner of the property. The new complex, funded jointly by the City of Birmingham and the Sloss Foundation, hosts educational exhibits relevant to the sites history, administrative offices, as well as additional multi-purpose space for public events. Sloss Furnaces holds metal arts classes and events, food festivals, fun runs, education programs, weddings, and concerts, as well as Historic Night Tours. The facility improvements are in line with an expected ongoing project within the city to construct new "greenway" spaces in the downtown area, possibly linking several popular city venues in the future. The story of Sloss preservation and modern use was documented in Alabama Public Televisions Sloss: Industry to Art.</p><br>
<p>In 2022, the Sloss Furnaces was a competition venue for the 2022 World Games. Sport climbing, breaking, parkour, and beach handball all held their respective competitions there.</p><br>
<p>The yearly Hardcore Punk festival “Furnace Fest” was hosted at the Sloss Furnaces from 2000-2003, and once again from 2021 until presently.</p><br>
<p>In November 2024, the VEX Robotics Signature Event "Haunted" was hosted at the Sloss Furnaces Historical Landmark.</p><br>
<p>The Flying Horse Carousel is a historic carousel in Watch Hill, the principal summer resort area of the town of Westerly, Rhode Island, United States. It is one of two in the state designated as National Historic Landmarks, along with the Crescent Park Looff Carousel in East Providence. It is the oldest operating carousel in the United States in which the horses are suspended from chains.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The carousel is believed to have been built around 1876 by the Charles W. Dare Company of New York. This is about the same time attributed to the construction of the Flying Horses Carousel in Oak Bluffs, Massachusetts, although both dates are based on inferences and lack certainty. It consists of twenty horses in two sizes which are suspended by chains from sweeps radiating out from the center of the carousel under its canopy. The bodies of the horses are believed to have been carved from single blocks of wood, with the legs carved separately and attached. The horses still have their original agate eyes; other trappings have been replaced, including manes and reins. The chains holding the horses are attached to the rump and to an iron bar added to the pommel, apparently a modification. When the carousel rotates, centrifugal force drives the horses outward, giving rise to the name "flying horses." The horses in the Oak Bluffs carousel are fixed to columns between spreader panels above and a platform below.</p><br>
<p>The carousel is located in a wood-frame pavilion at the end of Bay Street in Watch Hill. It is a ten-sided structure with a hipped roof, and appears to date to the early 20th century. A low picket fence surrounds the structure to prevent access to the space in which the horses fly when the carousel is in operation. The floor of the pavilion is now concrete; it was originally sand.</p><br>
<p>Children younger than 12 years old may ride. In the middle of the ride, a device holding metal rings is lowered for riders to grab as they pass. The last ring is brass, granting the rider a free ride token. The cost for riders on the outer horses is $4.00, whereas a ride on the inner is $1.00.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The carousel was originally part of a traveling carnival until 1879, when the carnival was forced to abandon it in Watch Hill. It was powered by a horse at that time, with music provided by a hand-cranked organ. Power was provided by water in 1897, and the carousel was electrified about 1914. It was extensively damaged by the New England Hurricane of 1938 which devastated Watch Hill. However, its horses were recovered from the sand dunes and the carousel was restored to operation; three chariots were lost which were not replaced. The carousel and its buildings have been the subject of repairs and restorations in the following decades. It is maintained by the non-profit Watch Hill Improvement Society.</p><br>
<p>The carousel was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980 and declared a National Historic Landmark in 1987. It operates annually from June to Labor Day.</p><br>
<p>Nassau Hall, colloquially known as Old Nassau, is the oldest building at Princeton University in Princeton, Mercer County, New Jersey, United States. In 1783 it served as the United States Capitol building for four months. At the time it was built in 1756, Nassau Hall was the largest building in colonial New Jersey and the largest academic building in the American colonies.</p><br>
<p>The university, originally known as the College of New Jersey, held classes for one year in Elizabeth and nine years in Newark before the hall was completed in 1756. Designed originally by Robert Smith, the building was subsequently remodeled by notable American architects Benjamin Latrobe, after the 1802 fire, and John Notman, after the 1855 fire. In the early years of Princeton University, Nassau Hall accommodated classrooms, a library, a chapel, and residential space for students and faculty. It housed the university&#39;s first Department of Psychology.</p><br>
<p>During the American Revolutionary War, Nassau Hall was possessed by both British and American forces and suffered considerable damage, especially during the Battle of Princeton on January 3, 1777. From June 30 to November 4, 1783, Princeton was the provisional capital of the United States, and Nassau Hall served as its seat of government. The Congress of the Confederation met in the building&#39;s library on the second floor. According to Princeton University, "Here Congress congratulated George Washington on his successful termination of the war, received the news of the signing of the definitive treaty of peace with Great Britain, and welcomed the first foreign minister&mdash;from the Netherlands&mdash;accredited to the United States."</p><br>
<p>At present, Nassau Hall houses Princeton Universitys administrative offices, including that of the universitys president. Old Nassau refers affectionately to the building and serves as a metonym for the university as a whole. The USA Department of the Interior designated Nassau Hall a National Historic Landmark in 1960, "signifying its importance in the Revolutionary War and in the history of the United States."</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>When the building was constructed in 1754, the college&#39;s board wanted to name it after Jonathan Belcher, the royal governor of New Jersey, but he declined, preferring it to be dedicated "to the immortal memory of the glorious King William III," who hailed from the Dutch House of Orange-Nassau. As a result, the building is known as Nassau Hall.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The New Jersey Legislature met for the first time in Nassau Hall on August 27, 1776. British forces occupied Nassau Hall in 1776, and the Continental Army attacked the building during the Battle of Princeton on January 3, 1777. Three cannonballs were fired at the building, but only two made contact. One bounced off the south side of the building; the damage can still be seen today. Another cannonball reportedly flew through a window in the faculty room and "decapitated" a portrait of George II of Great Britain. The cannonball was said to have come from a gun in the artillery company commanded by Alexander Hamilton, who had been rejected by Princeton when he first came to the colonies. The result of the battle was a decisive Patriot victory, and Nassau Hall was retaken by the Americans.</p><br>
<p>The Congress of the Confederation convened in Nassau Hall for a little more than four months (from June 30, 1783, to November 4, 1783). The normal location in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania had to be vacated because of a mutiny by Continental Army soldiers. Starting in 1869, each graduation class adds a new sprig of ivy to grow up the walls of the building. The first USA commemorative postage stamp printed on colored paper honored Nassau Hall on its bicentennial. It depicted a front view of Nassau Hall. It was denominated at the first class rate of 3 cents and was on orange paper. It was first issued at Princeton, New Jersey, on September 22, 1956.</p><br>
<h2>Princeton&#39;s alma mater</h2><br>
<p>The song Old Nassau was adopted as Princeton Universitys alma mater (school song) in 1859. The lyrics were written by Harlan Page Peck, a member of Princetons class of 1862, and first published in the March 1859 issue of Nassau Literary Magazine. The music, originally to be set to the tune of Auld Lang Syne, proved unworkable, and Karl A. Langlotz, a professor of music at Princeton who had studied composition under Franz Liszt, wrote a new melody for the song&#39;s lyrics.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>As described in 1760 in the New American Magazine, "The simple interior design is shown in the plan, where a central corridor provided communication with the students&#39; chambers and recitation rooms, the entrances, and the common prayer hall; and on the second floor, with the library over the central north entrance. The prayer hall was two stories high, measured 32 by 40 feet, and had a balcony at the north end which could be reached from the second-story entry. Partially below ground level, though dimly lighted by windows, was the cellar, which served as kitchen, dining area (beneath the prayer hall), and storeroom. In all there were probably forty rooms for the students, not including those added later in the cellar when a moat was dug to allow additional light and air into that dungeon."</p><br>
<p>On March 6, 1802, a fire devastated the interior of the hall, leaving only the exterior walls standing and destroying nearly all contents including 2,900 out of the library&#39;s 3,000 books. Benjamin Henry Latrobe, the first architect professionally trained in the United States and known for his work in the Federal style, oversaw the reconstruction and refused his share of the $42,000 that had been raised for the effort.Bennicoff, Tad. "A Brief History of Nassau Hall." Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library: FAQ A Brief History of Nassau Hall. Princeton University Library, 2003. Web. 14 Oct. 2012.</p><br>
<p>. "The horizontal lintels over the three entrances at the front of the building were replaced with triangular pediments, and the circular window in the central pediment rising from the eves (sic) was replaced with a fanlight."</p><br>
<p>The hall was gutted by fire once again in March 1855. Reconstruction was carried out by John Notman of Philadelphia in his characteristic Italian Renaissance style, adding an often-criticized cupola and towers along with engineering improvements. Many of his architectural flourishes were removed in later renovations.</p><br>
<p>Pisgah Covered Bridge is a wooden covered bridge that spans the west fork of the Little River in Randolph County, North Carolina. It is one of two remaining original historic covered bridges in the state,  and is designated as both a local and federal historic landmark.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The bridge was built in 1911 by J. J. Welch at a cost of $40. It is a one-lane bridge, 54 feet in length. The bridge eventually became obsolete when it could no longer handle the increased traffic, but it remains as a tourist attraction located at 6925 Pisgah Covered Bridge Road, west of the community of Pisgah. The road now crosses a nearby two-lane concrete bridge built in the 1950s.</p><br>
<h2>Preservation</h2><br>
<p>Since 1998, the has collaborated with the North Carolina Department of Transportation, the Piedmont Land Conservancy, and the Landtrust for Central North Carolina to maintain and refurbish the bridge. The bridge was washed away by a flood on August 9, 2003, but was rebuilt the next year using much of the original materials that were retrieved by local area volunteers. The restoration was able to salvage about 90 percent of the materials from the original structure. The bridge is assumed originally to have had a shingle roof; however, it was replaced with tin in the 1930s. In the restoration, the roof was shingled.</p><br>
<p>There is now a gate on the road leading to the bridge, however, it is open to the public daily from dawn to dusk.</p><br>
<h2>Sightseeing</h2><br>
<p>There is a quarter-mile trail through the woods on site. The trail crosses footbridges and passes a baptismal pool, downstream from the bridge.</p><br>
<p>Philip G. Cochran Memorial United Methodist Church is a historic Methodist church building located in Dawson, Fayette County, Pennsylvania, United States. It was built by Sarah B. Cochran between 1922 and 1927, and is a cruciform solid stone structure in the Late Gothic Revival style. It measures 130 feet by 161 feet. It features a crossing tower and steeple.</p><br>
<p>It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982. It is located in the Dawson Historic District.</p><br>
<p>The Bell Witch Cave is a karst cave located in Adams, Tennessee, near where the Bell Farm once stood. The cave is approximately 490 feet  long. The cave is privately owned, and tours are given during the summer months and in October.</p><br>
<p>This cave has been associated with the haunting of the Bell Witch, a period during which the Bell family was allegedly haunted by an entity now referred to as the "Bell Witch." The cave is located on property once owned by the Bell family. Many believe that when the witch departed the family, she fled to the sanctuary of this cave.</p><br>
<p>In the particular legend in which the cave is featured, young Betsy Bell and some of her friends had gone to explore the cave. While they were there, one of the boys crawled into a hole and became stuck. A voice cried out, "I&#39;ll get him out!" The boy felt hands grasping his feet, and he was pulled out of the hole. The supposed entity (still invisible), then gave the young explorers a lecture on reckless cave exploring.</p><br>
<p>According to science writer Brian Dunning, while the cave is close to the Bell family homestead, it did not play any role in the original Bell Witch stories. The alleged cave adventures by the Bell children were created and written many years after the event.</p><br>
<p>Fort Crown Point was built by the combined efforts of British and Colonial troops from New York and the New England Colonies in 1759 at a narrows on Lake Champlain on the border between New York and Vermont. It was erected to secure the region against the French in upstate New York near the town of Crown Point, and it was the largest earthen fortress built in the American colonies. The fort&#39;s ruins are a National Historic Landmark administered as part of Crown Point State Historic Site.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The French built a fortress at Crown Point in the 1730s with 12 ft thick limestone walls named Fort Saint-Frédéric. British forces targeted it twice during the French and Indian War before the French destroyed it in the summer of 1759.</p><br>
<p>The Crown Point fort was constructed by the British army under the command of Sir Jeffery Amherst following the capture of Carillon, a French fort to the south which he renamed Ticonderoga. Amherst used the construction of the fort as a means of keeping his men working through the winter of 1759 after pushing the French into Canada. Israel Putnam supervised much of the construction; he become a general in the American Revolutionary War. According to archaeologist David R. Starbuck, Crown Point was "the greatest British military installation ever raised in North America."</p><br>
<p>The fort was never directly assaulted. It was completed after the threat of French invasion had ended and was used largely for staging rather than as a military position. On April 21, 1773, a chimney fire broke out in the soldier&#39;s barracks. It quickly spread, burning for days. In May 1774, British military engineer John Montresor described the fort after the fire: "the conflagration of the late fort has rendered it an amazing useless mass of earth only". Montresor proposed expanding and improving one of the outworks rather than attempting to repair the main fort.</p><br>
<p>After the French and Indian War, the British left a skeletal force at the fort. They quickly yielded to Capt. Seth Warner and 100 Green Mountain Boys on May 12, 1775 in the battle of Crown Point at the start of the Revolutionary War. The Americans captured 111 cannons from the British at Crown Point, and transported 29 to Boston for the defense of Boston Harbor.</p><br>
<p>The fort was used as a staging ground by Benedict Arnold during the Revolution for his navy on Lake Champlain. That was destroyed in 1776 during the Battle of Valcour Island, and the fort was abandoned to the British in 1777 after the failure of the patriot Invasion of Canada. The British abandoned the fort in 1780, and the United States had no need for it and left it to deteriorate.</p><br>
<p>The large earthen walls are still visible today. The fire of April 1773 had entirely destroyed the log and earth fortress. The stone ruins of two barracks buildings at the site are being preserved. The fort was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1968.</p><br>
<h2>Visits by Founding Fathers</h2><br>
<p>Benjamin Franklin, traveling to Canada, seeking an alliance against the British</p><br>
<p>George Washington, July 21, 1783, the farthest north he ever traveled</p><br>
<p>Future Presidents Thomas Jefferson and James Madison in 1791</p><br>
<p>The Quincy Mine is an extensive set of copper mines located near Hancock, Michigan. The mine was owned by the Quincy Mining Company and operated between 1846 and 1945, although some activities continued through the 1970s. The Quincy Mine was known as "Old Reliable," as the Quincy Mine Company paid a dividend to investors every year from 1868 through 1920. The Quincy Mining Company Historic District is a United States National Historic Landmark District; the Quincy Dredge Number Two, and the Quincy Smelter are also historically significant.</p><br>
<h2>Lifespan: 1846-1945</h2><br>
<p>The Quincy Mine was founded in 1846 by the merger of the Northwest Mining Company and the Portage Mining Company. Due to poor communication between government offices, these two speculative mining companies had purchased the same tracts of land during the mining rush of the early 1840s. The directors met and decided to merge, with significant investment coming from Massachusetts (the town of Quincy, Massachusetts lent the mine its name). While many other copper mines were founded at the same time, the Quincy Mine became the most successful of the 1840s-era mines, and was the country&#39;s leading copper-producing mine from 1863 (when it exceeded the production of the Minesota Mine) through 1867 (after which it was exceeded by the Calumet and Hecla).</p><br>
<p>The mine was the first Michigan copper mine to switch from fissure mining to amygdaloid mining, when the recently discovered Pewabic amygdaloid lode was found to cross Quincy property in 1856. High-grade fissure veins contained large, pure masses of copper, but the masses could take days or even months to extract, at high cost. Amygdaloid mining consisted of extracting lower-grade strataform orebodies in the "amygdaloid zones," the upper portions of basalt lava flows. Rock bearing small pockets of copper could be blasted out immediately and processed elsewhere at much lower cost. Amygdaloid mining proved much more productive than fissure mining, and the size and richness of the Pewabic lode in particular allowed the Quincy to produce profits for 53 consecutive years. The Quincy company expanded laterally along the lode by buying out adjacent properties. The company bought the Pewabic mine in 1891, the Mesnard and the Pontiac in 1897, and the Franklin mine in 1908. This helped the mine survive longer than almost all other Keweenaw copper mining companies, except the Calumet and Hecla Mining Company and the Copper Range Company.</p><br>
<p>To attract a better class of worker, the Quincy Mining Company built and maintained housing for the workers. Over the course of operations, the types of housing ranged from simple tents in the early days, to complete three story houses shortly before the mines shutdown. The executives on the east coast wanted to build more elaborate and fancy homes with amenities such as electricity and running water. However, the on-site managers didnt think it was necessary for the miners to have such high-class dwellings. But the east coast executives realized that if they offered nicer homes to the workers, the miners were more likely to stay, raise families, and be less likely to leave the area or transfer to another mining company. This strategy proved effective and helped the Quincy Mining Company retain its status as one of the premier mining companies in the region.</p><br>
<p>The Quincy Mining Company closed operations (but did not dissolve) in 1931 due to low copper prices. During World War II, the mines re-opened due to increased copper demand. When the government stopped supporting copper prices after the war, the mines quickly closed for good.</p><br>
<h2>The mine&#39;s engineering achievements</h2><br>
<p>When the mine ceased production in 1945, the Quincy Number 2 shaft was the world&#39;s longest mine shaft, at 9,260 feet (2.82 km or 1.75 miles) along the dip of the deposit on a 55 degree decline. (measured vertically from the shaft collar, the depth is 6,200 feet.)Arthur Buisson, "Deep level mining problems,"</p><br>
<p>Canadian Mining Journal, Nov. 1951, v.74 n.11 p.C 60. To raise and lower ore and workers into this shaft, the world&#39;s largest steam-driven mine hoist was built in 1918 and housed in the Quincy Number 2 Hoist House. The Nordberg Steam Hoist and its reinforced concrete building, built in the Georgian architectural style with brick veneer and Italian-tiled walls, cost over $370,000 in 1918 but was used for only eleven years until it ceased usage in 1929. Weighing more than 880 tons, it lifted 10 tons of ore at 36.4 miles per hour, thus saving $16,080 in fuel bills in its first year of operation. The hoist sat on the largest concrete slab ever poured, containing 3200 cu. yards of concrete and over 8 tons of reinforcement material. The Number 2 Hoist House was built as a reinforced concrete structure on a scale rare for 1918, making it one of the first of its kind. The very decorative Hoist House was used as a showpiece for visiting investors.</p><br>
<h2>The Mine Today</h2><br>
<p>The Quincy Mine is now a popular Keweenaw tourist attraction. The Quincy Mine Hoist Association maintains the buildings and grounds, and provides guided tours of the Number 2 Hoist House and the 7th level of the mine during the summer. Tourists are transported to the 7th level by the Quincy and Torch Lake Cog Railway. There are museum-style exhibits within many buildings. The mine and surrounding areas are part of Keweenaw National Historical Park.</p><br>
<p>Two locomotives of the Quincy & Torch Lake Railroad, which used to transport the mine’s ore to a mill, are located on site: Locomotive #1, the Thomas F. Mason, being a 32-ton 2-6-0 Mogul built by the Brooks Locomotive Works of Dunkirk, New York, and Locomotive #6, the last engine purchased for the line, being a 2-8-0 Consolidation acquired in 1913.</p><br>
<p>The Number 6 Shaft House (no longer standing) is often pictured in photographs as a picturesque example of shaft house architecture.</p><br>
<p>On December 6, 2008 Michigan Tech Associate Professor William J. Gregg was installing emergency ladders in the mine shaft at the Number 2 Shaft House when he fell 225 feet and landed on an object and was declared dead at the scene by a paramedic who was lowered down to his location.</p><br>
<p>The shafts and stopes of the Quincy Mine have slowly filled with groundwater since the closing of the mine. The water has currently filled the mine up to the seventh level, making all lower levels inaccessible. The seventh level is drained by a large adit, which is the mine tour entrance. The adit, originally five feet high and three feet wide when it was constructed in 1892, was enlarged by Michigan Tech in the 1970s for a mining study.</p><br>
<p>The Will Rogers Memorial Center  is a 120 acre American public entertainment, sports and livestock complex located in Fort Worth, Texas. It is named for American humorist and writer Will Rogers. It is a popular location for the hosting of specialized equestrian and livestock shows, including the annual Fort Worth Stock Show, the annual National Reined Cow Horse Association Snaffle Bit Futurity, the World Championship Paint Horse Show, and three major events of the National Cutting Horse Association each year. It is also the former home of the Fort Worth Texans ice hockey team, and it hosted a PBR Bud Light Cup Series  event annually from 1995 through 2004. Events at the WRMC attract over two million visitors annually. The complex contains the following facilities:</p><br>
<p>Will Rogers Coliseum (5,652 seats)</p><br>
<p>Will Rogers Auditorium (2,856 seats)</p><br>
<p>Will Rogers Equestrian Center</p><br>
<p>Amon G. Carter Jr. Exhibits Hall</p><br>
<p>James L. & Eunice West Arena</p><br>
<p>John Justin Arena</p><br>
<p>W. R. Watt Arena</p><br>
<p>The Memorial Center was built in 1936 and designed by architect Wyatt C. Hedrick, who employed the Moderne (Art Deco) style. Also in 1936, Amon G. Carter commissioned Electra Waggoner Biggs to create the statue Riding into the Sunset, a tribute to Will Rogers and his horse Soapsuds. Over a decade later, in 1947, the work was unveiled at the Center. On March 22, 2016, the complex was placed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>Will Rogers Memorial Coliseum was the home of the Fort Worth Stock Show & Rodeo for many years. The rodeo is sanctioned by the Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association (PRCA). Dickies Arena, which opened in November 2019, is located adjacent to the complex. The 14,000-seat venue has hosted the Fort Worth Stock Show & Rodeo since 2020, as well as concerts and early-round games in the 2022 NCAA Division I men&#39;s basketball tournament; however, Will Rogers Memorial Center continues to operate as an equestrian arena in Fort Worth.</p><br>
<p>Coast Guard Base Kodiak is a major shore installation of the United States Coast Guard, located in Kodiak, Alaska. The largest tenant unit on the base is Air Station Kodiak. It is also the home port for several cutters. Historic elements that it includes are the Kodiak Naval Operating Base, Fort Greely, and Fort Abercrombie.</p><br>
<p>The station is the subject of the series Coast Guard Alaska on The Weather Channel and is prominently featured in the 2006 film The Guardian and is frequently referenced in the Discovery Channel series Deadliest Catch.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The base began as the United States Navys Naval Air Station Kodiak on 15 June 1941. Artillery emplacements survive on Buskin Hill, Artillery Hill, and at Fort Abercrombie (now a state park), but little remains of Fort Greelys barracks.</p><br>
<p>On 17 April 1947 the Coast Guard Air Station was commissioned as an Air Detachment at the navy base with one PBY Catalina aircraft, seven pilots, and thirty crewmen. On 25 April 1972 the order establishing Coast Guard Base Kodiak and CG RADSTA Kodiak was issued by the Commandant of the CG. CG Air Station Kodiak was already operating with three HC-130H airplanes and two HH-52A helicopters. Today, CG Air Station Kodiak operates five HC-130J aircraft, five MH-60T Jayhawk helicopters, and five MH-65C Dolphin helicopters.</p><br>
<p>Kodiak Naval Operating Base, Fort Greely, and Fort Abercrombie were together listed on the National Register of Historic Places and also declared to be a National Historic Landmark in 1985 for the role the facilities played in World War II.</p><br>
<h3>2012 shooting</h3><br>
<p>On April 12, 2012, two Coast Guard members were found fatally shot at their work stations in one of the communications buildings on-base. The event caused panic on the island as residents where urged to stay indoors and report suspect activities, as school where put on lockdown. After an investigation conducted by the FBI, Coast Guard Investigative Service, and Alaska State Troopers, the prime suspect (James Michael "Jim" Wells) was arrested.</p><br>
<h2>Homeported cutters</h2><br>
<p>USCGC Alex Haley (WMEC-39)</p><br>
<p>USCGC Cypress (WLB-210)</p><br>
<p>Tse-whit-zen (č̕ixʷícən in the Klallam language, meaning "inner harbor" During construction in August 2003 of a graving dock associated with replacement of the Hood Canal Bridge, the village&#39;s cemetery and other prehistoric remains were discovered. The construction project was abandoned at this site because of the importance of the find, as the village was intact. It is the largest pre-European contact village site excavated in Washington State.</p><br>
<p>Archaeological excavation has revealed more than 10,000 artifacts and more than 335 intact skeletons. The Washington State Department of Transportation decided to halt all construction efforts related to the graving dock on December 21, 2004. Since then it has worked to ensure the preservation of remains and artifacts already uncovered by the construction.</p><br>
<p>As a result of a legal settlement with Washington State, the tribe received the land of the village site, as well as $2.5 million to build a cultural center or museum at the site. The tribe intended to begin construction around 2012.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe occupied the village of Tse-whit-zen for more than 2,700 years, according to radiocarbon dating. Their territory extended from this area along the Hoko River on the Strait of Juan de Fuca into the present-day Hood Canal, and this was one of several villages throughout the area. The earliest confirmed settlement at the village site dates to 750 B.C., about the same time as the founding of Rome, Italy.</p><br>
<p>This village site, which includes longhouse areas, ceremonial areas, places for fish and clam drying, was occupied by the Klallam until the 1930s. During the early 20th century, businesses owned by European Americans built a number of lumber mills on top of the village site at the waterfront during the expansion of the lumber industry. Because the ground was covered with 15 to 30 ft of fill, the village and cemetery site was preserved through this period.</p><br>
<p>Archaeological excavation has revealed possibly eight long house structures.</p><br>
<p>Elder Adeline Smith of the Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe championed the preservation of Tse-whit-zen. As a child, Smith had been warned by adults never to walk on or play on the site of Tse-whit-zen, as it was considered sacred by her people. She was also instrumental in gaining removal of the Elwha Dam and contributing to preservation of the Klallam language through creating a dictionary and written form.</p><br>
<p>The site is the largest ancient (pre-contact) Native American village discovered in Washington state to date (as of 2013).</p><br>
<p>Courthouse and Jail Rocks are two rock formations located near Bridgeport in the Nebraska Panhandle.</p><br>
<p>The Oregon-California Trail, the Mormon Trail, the Pony Express Trail and the Sidney-Deadwood Trail all ran near the rocks. The pair of rock formations served as a landmark along the trails for many pioneers traveling west in the 19th century. Many travelers would stray as much as 5 mi from the Oregon Trail just to get a glimpse of the rocks.</p><br>
<p>Hundreds of westward-bound emigrants mentioned Courthouse Rock (originally also McFarlan&#39;s Castle) in their travel logs and journals. The name "Courthouse" was first used in 1837. In 1845, one traveler described the rock as "resembling the ruins of an old castle rises abruptly from the plain....It is difficult to look upon it and not believe that art had something to do with its construction. The voyagers have called it the Courthouse; but it looks infinitely more like the Capitol."</p><br>
<p>Courthouse and Jail Rocks, which rise 400 ft above the North Platte Valley, are composed of Brule clay, Gering sandstone and volcanic ash. The rock formations are listed in the National Register of Historic Places and in the Nebraska Natural Areas Register.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Robert Stuart (explorer) first recorded Court House and Jail House Rock in 1812. By 1849 and the California Gold Rush, the promontories had been described as Castles, a Church, and Coffins. The name Court House and Jail House became the most common.</p><br>
<p>Pumpkin Creek forms an oxbow near the buttes where a meadow with trees make a suitable campsite. There is evidence that fur trappers, Native Americans, gold seekers on their way to California and the Black Hills, and the military once camped in this bend. Further to the southeast on Pumpkin Creek, is the site of a Pony Express Station. The Pony Express and the military used a shorter route on the west side as did the Sidney-Black Hills Trail.</p><br>
<p>The buttes are the first promontories along the trail coming from the east. Even for those emigrants who used the Julesburg, Colorado crossing of the South Platte River, the buttes are mentioned in their diaries.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Court House and Jail House Rocks are remnants of an ancient plateau, that was split by the North Platte River. They are remnants of the nearby hills that have become separated over time. At an elevation of 4,050 ft above sea level they rise 240 ft above Pumpkin Creek. Courthouse and Jail Rocks, which rise 400 ft above the North Platte Valley, are composed of Brule clay, Gering sandstone and volcanic ash. The rock formations are listed in the National Register of Historic Places and in the Nebraska Natural Areas Register.</p><br>
<p>Fort Negley was a fortification built by Union troops after the capture of Nashville, Tennessee during the American Civil War, located approximately 2 mi south of the city center. It was the largest inland fort built in the United States during the war.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Once Confederate forces were routed in February, 1862, from Forts Henry and Donelson (on the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers, respectively), Confederate commanders decided that any further effort in the defense of Nashville would be pointless, and they abandoned any attempt to keep Nashville behind their lines. It was almost immediately occupied by Union forces, who rapidly began preparations for its defense. The largest of the fortifications erected was Fort Negley, a star-shaped limestone block structure atop St. Cloud Hill, south of the city. The construction of the fort was overseen by Captain James St. Clair Morton. The fort was constructed out of 62,500 cuft of stone, 18,000 cuft of earth and cost $130,000. It was largely constructed using the labor of local slaves (including women), newly freed slaves who had flocked to Nashville once it was taken by Union forces with the understanding that their status as slaves was to be revoked were they to work for the Union, and by free blacks forcibly conscripted for the work. Records show that 2,768 blacks were officially enrolled in its construction. The fort was named for Union Army commander General James S. Negley.</p><br>
<p>When the Battle of Nashville finally began in December 1864, it was largely fought on the heights even farther south of the city than Fort Negley, which despite its then-impressive appearance never played a leading military role. Shortly after the war, the fort was abandoned and fell into ruin; however, its outline could be readily discerned for many years afterwards in the encroaching woods. During the Reconstruction period, the area was used as a meeting place for the Ku Klux Klan, as confirmed by former Klansman Marcus B. Toney.</p><br>
<h2>Preservation</h2><br>
<p>In the 1930s, the Works Progress Administration (WPA) made a major project of the restoration of Fort Negley. However, almost simultaneous with the completion of this project came the United States entry into World War II. Neither the manpower, funds, or the interest was available at the time to reopen the fort as an historic or interpretative center. After the war, the fort was allowed to continue to languish, becoming the site of vandalism and minor crime; entry to the site was finally prohibited and the area reverted to forest. However, the surrounding grounds became the site of a municipal park, first as the site of baseball and softball fields for youth and adult leagues, and later as the site of Herschel Greer Stadium, a Minor League Baseball ballpark. The Cumberland Science Museum, a continuation under a new name and in a new venue of the former Nashville Childrens Museum (now the Adventure Science Center), was built on the northwestern slope. Most visitors to the stadium and the museum were generally unaware of what was on the wooded hilltop other than it was something which they were not allowed to access.</p><br>
<p>After years of discussions and negotiations, historic preservationists were successful in getting sufficient funding in the early 2000s for another restoration project, and the fort was reopened to the public for the first time in decades on December 10, 2004. The project went ahead when it was shown that similar places in other cities resulted in more economic stimulation and hence more tax revenue from the resultant tourism than was spent on the maintenance and operation of such sites. The recent restoration was not an attempt to restore the fort completely to its Civil War condition but rather to stabilize the ruins and make them more accessible and visible by removing many of the largest trees and moving some of the blocks back to their original positions; what exists today is a combination of the original fortification and the WPA restoration. In 2007, an additional $1 million in city funds was used to build a visitor center. More work on the site is planned.</p><br>
<p>Part of the citys 2017 proposed plan to redevelop the Greer Stadium site, it having sat vacant since 2015, involved highlighting the Forts history through the creation of educational spaces and interpretive trails and the preservation of the fort and its sightlines. The plan also included redeveloping the adjacent Greer Stadium property to include music and art space, a community center, open park space, retail space, and affordable housing. The presence of significant Civil War and African American historical resources, the citys stated goal of adding 4,500 acres of park land by 2027, and the citys closed-door process of selecting a redevelopment plan were met with criticism. The developers cancelled their plans in January 2018 after archaeologists determined that undisturbed areas on the edge of the Greer property, but not part of the stadium itself, were the unmarked burial sites of slaves forced to build Fort Negley. Mayor Megan Barry expressed her desire that the site honor the history of those who died building the fort.</p><br>
<p>Fort Negley is now listed as a Site of Memory in the Slave Route Project of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). A master plan for restoration of the site as a park and for interpretation of the site&#39;s complex history was completed in 2022.</p><br>
<p>Weaver&#39;s Antique Service Station is a gas station built in c.1930, which is restored and still evocative of the 1930s, located in Burlington, West Virginia on Northwestern Turnpike , near its intersection with Patterson Creek Road.</p><br>
<p>It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places as a contributing building within the Burlington Historic District. It is a vernacular wood-frame building, with stucco plaster over 1/8 inch wire mesh. A wood outbuilding, built c.1900, is included in the property, which in 1992 served as a museum of local historical artifacts. It is located on the south side of USA Route 50.</p><br>
<p>The Sweet Auburn Historic District is a historic African-American neighborhood along and surrounding Auburn Avenue, east of downtown Atlanta, Georgia, United States. The name Sweet Auburn was coined by John Wesley Dobbs, referring to the "richest Negro street in the world," one of the largest concentrations of African-American businesses in the United States.</p><br>
<p>A National Historic Landmark District was designated in 1976, covering 19 acre of the neighborhood, significant for its history and development as a segregated area under the state&#39;s Jim Crow laws. Sweet Auburn was also added to the National Register of Historic Places the same year.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Sweet Auburn is one of 242 officially recognized neighborhoods of Atlanta. It is bounded by:</p><br>
<p>Freedom Parkway and the Old Fourth Ward (formerly the separate Bedford Pine neighborhood) on the north</p><br>
<p>Boulevard and the Old Fourth Ward on the east</p><br>
<p>the MARTA east–west line and the Oakland and Grant Park neighborhoods on the south, and</p><br>
<p>the Downtown Connector and downtown Atlanta on the west</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The first settlement here was on land formerly occupied by Union troops and was called Shermantown for many years. It developed quickly being near the Georgia Railroad and in 1879 was at the endpoint of a newly graded road called simply Boulevard, which led from the railroad to North Avenue near Ponce de Leon Avenue and Angier Springs.</p><br>
<p>The rise of Auburn Avenue as "the" black business district in Atlanta was to a great extent an outcome of the 1906 Atlanta Race Riot. Prior to this time black businesses operated largely in downtown Atlanta — a business district integrated as far as business ownership was concerned. But competition between working-class whites and blacks for jobs and housing gave rise to fears and tensions. In 1906, print media fueled these tensions with hearsay about alleged sexual assaults on white women by black men, triggering the riot, which left at least 27 people dead (25 of them black) and over 70 injured.</p><br>
<p>Black businesses started to move from previously integrated business district downtown to the relative safety of the area around the Atlanta University Center west of downtown, and to Auburn Avenue in the Fourth Ward east of downtown. "Sweet" Auburn Avenue became home to Alonzo Herndons Atlanta Mutual, the citys first black-owned life insurance company, and to a celebrated concentration of black businesses, newspapers, churches, and nightclubs. In 1956, Fortune magazine called Sweet Auburn "the richest Negro street in the world", a phrase originally coined by civil rights leader John Wesley Dobbs from the poem The Deserted Village by Oliver Goldsmith. Sweet Auburn and Atlanta&#39;s black colleges formed the nexus of a prosperous black middle class and upper class which arose despite enormous social and legal obstacles.</p><br>
<p>Sweet Auburn was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1976. However, like so many other inner-city neighborhoods, Sweet Auburn fell victim to lack of investment, heavy, widespread crime, homelessness, and abandonment, compounded by construction of the Downtown Connector freeway that split it in two. In 1992 the National Trust for Historic Preservation recognized that it was one of America&#39;s 11 Most Endangered Historic Places and, in 2005, the Georgia Trust for Historic Preservation included the area in its 2006 list of Places in Peril. The Historic District Development Corporation (HDDC) was formed to turn the trend around, starting with houses surrounding the birth home of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., and working outward. In 2014, the city of Atlanta completed the installation of the Atlanta Streetcar, a line that creates a loop connecting the Martin Luther King Jr. National Historical Park to downtown and the tourist attractions of Centennial Olympic Park. The streetcar travels east along Edgewood Avenue and west along Auburn Avenue.</p><br>
<h2>Historic structures and businesses</h2><br>
<p>Several churches located along the avenue, such as Big Bethel AME and First Congregational, helped build and maintain the heritage of the street. Our Lady of Lourdes Catholic Church, located just off the avenue, was also a significant force as the first Black Catholic parish in the city.</p><br>
<p>The Royal Peacock Club provided an elegant setting where many African Americans could perform and bring the changing styles of black popular music to Atlanta. Originally called the Top Hat Club when it opened in 1938, the club hosted local talent and national acts such as B.B. King, the Four Tops, the Tams and Atlanta&#39;s own Gladys Knight.</p><br>
<p>One of the many significant commercial buildings within the district is the Atlanta Life Insurance Company. The second-largest black insurance company in the United States, Atlanta Life Insurance was founded in 1905 by Alonzo Herndon, a former slave from Walton County, Georgia. The central building of the Atlanta Life Insurance Company complex is a Beaux Arts building facing Auburn Avenue. The district also includes the Rucker Building, Atlanta&#39;s first black-owned office building, constructed in 1904 by Henry A. Rucker, a former slave turned businessman and politician.</p><br>
<p>Also located on Auburn Avenue was The Atlanta Daily World, the first black-owned daily newspaper, which was founded here in 1928. (The Atlanta Daily World is still the nation&#39;s longest running African American newspaper.) In 1948, the Atlanta Police Department was integrated, hiring eight black police officers, all of whom were assigned to Auburn Avenue.</p><br>
<h3>List of historical churches and businesses</h3><br>
<p>APEX Museum – founded in 1985</p><br>
<p>Atlanta Daily World – founded in 1928</p><br>
<p>Atlanta Life Insurance – founded in 1905</p><br>
<p>Big Bethel AME Church – founded in 1847</p><br>
<p>Ebenezer Baptist Church – founded in 1886</p><br>
<p>Herndon Building – opened in 1924, demolished following damage from 2008 Atlanta tornado</p><br>
<p>Martin Luther King Jr. National Historical Park, including:</p><br>
<p>Dr. King&#39;s birth (January 15, 1929) home – built in 1895</p><br>
<p>Visitors Center – founded in 1980</p><br>
<p>Odd Fellows Building and Auditorium – 1912–13</p><br>
<p>Our Lady of Lourdes Catholic Church, founded in 1912</p><br>
<p>Prince Hall Masonic Temple- built 1937/1941 (Addition Added)</p><br>
<p>Rucker Building – constructed 1904</p><br>
<p>Sweet Auburn Curb Market – opened in 1924</p><br>
<p>Georgia Insurance Brokerage founded 1970</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<p>Sweet Auburn celebrates the annual, and in the Fall, the Sweet Auburn Heritage Festival. The Sweet Auburn Heritage Festival is an annual festival held the first weekend in October on Auburn Avenue. Civil rights leader Hosea Williams founded the first festival in 1984. founded the festival in 1994 as a way to celebrate the African American achievements as established on Auburn Avenue. The festival offers food, art, and entertainment throughout the day while celebrating Auburn Avenue&#39;s past and growth, and is operated by the Sweet Auburn Committee.</p><br>
<p>The festivals entertainment varies from comedians to up and coming artists from diverse genres of music. The Sweet Auburn Heritage Festival searches for entertainment from cities such as Atlanta, Macon, Savannah, Augusta, Huntsville and Chattanooga in hopes to help non- established artists path to stardom. Artist such as Usher Raymond, Outkast, India.Arie, and Raven-Symoné have started out performing on stage at the festival. Ultimately, the Sweet Auburn Heritage Festival entertainment has grown much farther than originally anticipated from its beginning stages in 1984.</p><br>
<p>Edgewood Avenue which runs through the heart of Sweet Auburn has become a hotspot for viewing for street art in Atlanta. Works by international artists such as Sten Lex and local artists such as Dr. Dax and Chris Veal can be found on Edgewood Avenue and the surrounding streets. Several of the Sweet Auburn murals can be found on the.</p><br>
<p>The Auburn Avenue Research Library on African American Culture and History is an institution dedicated to preserving and highlighting African American culture and history.</p><br>
<p>This article incorporates text from the National Park Service website, a work of the USA government, and therefore in the public domain.</p><br>
<p>The Victorian Village District is an area of Memphis, Tennessee.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Victorian Village is located in the eastern quadrant of downtown Memphis.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>During Memphis early period of growth in the mid-19th century, a few wealthy Memphians built grand, Victorian-style homes in what was then the outskirts of the city. The homes in Victorian Village were built from 1846 into the 1890s, and range in style from Neo-classical through Late Gothic Revival. Edward C. Jones, one of Memphiss most significant Victorian-era architects, and his partner, Matthias Harvey Baldwin, built the Woodruff-Fontaine House (1870) and renovated the Harsson-Goyer-Lee House (1871).</p><br>
<p>The Massey House, the oldest in the area (ca. 1846), was built for Benjamin A. Massey, an early Memphis lawyer.</p><br>
<p>The Mallory-Neely House (1852) was built in Italian villa style with a central tower for banker Isaac Kirtland and extensively renovated and expanded during the 1880s and 1890s. The interior is well preserved, with much of the original late-19th-century furnishings intact.</p><br>
<p>The Harsson-Goyer-Lee House (690 Adams, see photograph) was once the home of riverboat owner James Lee. It was expanded in 1871 by Charles Goyer, a founder of Union Planters Bank.</p><br>
<p>The Pillow-McIntyre House (ca. 1852) is a two-story Greek Revival home purchased in 1873 by Mexican War and Confederate General Gideon Pillow. This striking eclectic-style Victorian had been unused for years, but with the assistance of corporate and community donations it was refurbished in 2004.</p><br>
<p>The Woodruff-Fontaine House (1870) was built in French-Victorian style by Amos Woodruff, a successful carriage maker, entrepreneur and politician. The second resident, Noland Fontaine, was a factor in the Memphis Cotton Exchange. The house was deeded to the city in 1936, and in later years was used for an art school. In 1961 the art school moved, and the Association for the Preservation of Tennessee Antiquities took over the house and restored it with 19th-century regional antiques and textiles. A Victorian Gingerbread playhouse is also on the grounds.</p><br>
<p>The Snowden home in the Annesdale-Snowden Historic District dates from the same era. In 1850, Dr. Samuel Mansfield built this "Italianate villa" on his 200 acre plantation just outside Memphis. The house was situated on a knoll above what was then the stage route to Mississippi. In 1869 Colonel Robert C. Brinkley bought the estate as a wedding gift to his daughter, Annie Overton Brinkley, and her new husband, Colonel Bogardus Snowden. The estate was named Annesdale in her honor. In the first decade of the 20th century, Col. Snowden and his sons John and Robert built two subdivisions on the estate, Annesdale Park (1903), claimed to be the first in the South, and Snowden Homestead (1910). The streets in these then-affluent subdivisions were named for the Snowden children. Memphis entrepreneur Kemmons Wilson and other well-known Memphis names resided there. After World War II, the neighborhood gradually declined until it began to be gentrified in the 1970s and after it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979. The Snowden home is not open to the public.</p><br>
<h2>Present</h2><br>
<p>Some of these three- and four-story mansions now stand near the citys downtown along Adams Avenue. While most of the original homes are now gone, several remain as museums: the Magevney House (198 Adams), the Mallory-Neely House (652 Adams) and the Woodruff-Fontaine House (680 Adams). The Magevney House is currently open the first Saturday each month from 1pm-4pm with free admission. The Mallory-Neely House is open Friday and Saturday, 10:00-4:00. After 60+ years of being vacant, the Harsson-Goyer-Lee House has been renovated into a high-end Bed and Breakfast. The Woodruff-Fontaine Houses hours are Wednesday-Sunday, 12:00-4:00 and is a popular venue for weddings and private parties.</p><br>
<p>The Victorian Village neighborhood is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h3>Endangered homes</h3><br>
<p>The Lowenstein-Long House (1901) at 217 N. Waldran Blvd. and the Lee-Macintyre House in Victorian Village are considered to be endangered by Memphis Heritage, a non-profit preservationist group based in the city.</p><br>
<p>Washington&#39;s Headquarters State Historic Site, also called Hasbrouck House, is located in Newburgh, New York, United States, overlooking the Hudson River. George Washington and his staff were headquartered in the house while commanding the Continental Army during the final year and a half of the American Revolutionary War; at 16 months and 19 days it was his longest tenure at any of his headquarters during the war.</p><br>
<p>Purchased by New York State in 1850, it is the first property acquired and preserved by any USA state for historic reasons. It is the oldest house still extant in the city of Newburgh, and was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1966.</p><br>
<h2>Early History (1750–1782)</h2><br>
<p>The first fieldstone farmhouse on the site may have been built in 1725 by Burger Mynderse. The property, comprising some 200 acres, was sold to Elsie Hasbrouck of New Paltz, New York, and she in turn gave it to her son, Jonathan, who married Catherine (Tryntje) Dubois. Together, they built the existing structure on the original foundation, if any, in 1750. An addition was completed on the southern side of the house in 1760, before the house doubled in size with a final addition being completed in 1770 on the western side. The Hasbroucks originally maintained a large stock farm on their property before venturing into other business; in the 1760&#39;s they constructed a gristmill on the far western end of their property along Quassaic Creek. A few years later they constructed a dock on the Hudson River to trade directly with New York City, increasing their wealth.</p><br>
<p>The home is built in the Dutch Vernacular style, with notable "Dutch Jambless" fireplaces featured prominently throughout. While it is known that the Hasbrouck family used the oldest 1750 Jambless fireplace as their kitchen, there is evidence that a brick fireplace with a connected Dutch oven existed in the 1770 addition and was used by the Hasbroucks as their kitchen after the addition. As that fireplace was removed after the state&#39;s acquisition of the site, it is hard to know with any degree of certainty.</p><br>
<h2>Washington&#39;s Headquarters (1782–1783)</h2><br>
<p>On April 1, 1782, General George Washington took up residence at the Newburgh farmhouse of the Hasbrouck family, making Newburgh the Continental Armys headquarters; he remained officially headquartered there until August 19, 1783, when he departed for Rockingham, the house of John Berrien in Rocky Hill, New Jersey. Although the Hasbrouck house remained his official headquarters for this period, he did not in fact reside in the house for the entire time; he made numerous trips to Philadelphia, Albany, Verplancks Point, Tappan, West Point, Dobbs Ferry, and Kingston to tend to various Army and governmental matters. Additionally, between July 18 and August 5, 1783, Washington toured much of the Northern theater of the war, including the Saratoga Battlefields, Fort Ticonderoga, Fort Stanwix, and other battle sites that he did not personally witness. Despite these departures he remained officially headquartered at the Hasbrouck House for 16.5 months, making it his longest stay at any of his over 160 headquarters.</p><br>
<p>Prior to Washingtons arrival, the Army made a number of changes and improvements to the house to better serve the Generals needs. A temporary kitchen was constructed detached from the house, roughly where the gravel path separating the House and the Museum sits today. There may have been an icehouse constructed near the new kitchen as well. Existing buildings such as stables and barns were also enlarged and improved for Army use. Other changes were made inside the house during Washingtons residence, including the addition of an "English" style fireplace in General Washingtons bedroom, as well as a new door that led directly to the exterior kitchen. Most Army buildings were removed by the Quartermaster-General&#39;s Office at the end of the war, with the exception of a "House in the garden", which was given to Mrs. Hasbrouck. It no longer exists.</p><br>
<p>While Washington was headquartered in Newburgh the main bulk of the Continental Army was encamped nearby at the New Windsor Cantonment near what is today known as Vails Gate, a few miles to the southwest. There were roughly 7,500 troops of the Army as well as 500 women and children as camp followers.</p><br>
<h3>Newburgh Letter</h3><br>
<p>In March 1782, Washington received the infamous Newburgh letter from Lewis Nicola, which criticized the Congress of the Confederation as inherently weak as he believed all republican governments would be; he particularly highlighted the governments inability to secure funds and supplies for Nicolas Invalid Corps, as well as the larger army in general, as proof of this. Nicola then suggested that Washington should become the king of the United States; he admitted that terms like "tyranny" and "monarchy" were too contentious, and suggested Washington should take an alternate title, but in time the new title would be recognized as synonymous with "king". Washington strongly rejected Nicolas suggestion, as he was acutely aware of peoples fears of an "American Cromwell," and had no desire to be a monarch. In his reply, Washington said that "No incident in the course of the war in me triggers painful feelings as your message, that such ideas are circulating in the army, as you expressed it." In honor of that rejection, Kings Highway, the north–south street on which the Newburgh headquarters is located, was renamed Liberty Street.</p><br>
<p>While some claim that Washington rejected the crown of the United States, this is erroneous; Washington simply rejected the suggestion of a crown, made by someone who was far too low-ranked and inconsequential to actually be in a position to offer one. Still, this is an important moment in history, as it reaffirms Washington&#39;s commitment to republicanism, and marks a rare occasion of a victorious general declining absolute power.</p><br>
<h3>Badge of Military Merit</h3><br>
<p>On August 7, 1782, Washington issued a general order which established the Badge of Military Merit, which could be awarded to enlisted men and non-commissioned officers for long and faithful service and for acts of heroism. Still, despite its vague wording, it was only awarded to three men, all non-commissioned officers. On May 3, 1783, it was awarded to Sergeant William Brown of the 5th Connecticut Regiment of the Connecticut Line and Sergeant Elijah Churchill of the 2nd Regiment Light Dragoons. Then on June 10, 1783, it was awarded to Sergeant Daniel Bissell of the 2nd Connecticut Regiment of the Connecticut Line. General Washington awarded the Badge to its recipients personally on the front lawn of Newburgh Headquarters. It is widely considered to be the first military decoration for the United States, and is the second oldest in the world (after the Cross of St. George).</p><br>
<p>Largely forgotten about for a century and a half, on 10 October 1927, Army Chief of Staff General Charles Pelot Summerall directed that a draft bill be sent to Congress "to revive the Badge of Military Merit". The bill was withdrawn and action on the case ceased on 3 January 1928, but the office of the Adjutant General was instructed to file all materials collected for possible future use. A number of private interests sought to have the medal re-instituted in the Army; this included the board of directors of the Fort Ticonderoga Museum in Ticonderoga, New York On 7 January 1931, Summeralls successor, General Douglas MacArthur, confidentially reopened work on a new design, involving the Washington Commission of Fine Arts. Elizabeth Will, an Army heraldic specialist in the Office of the Quartermaster General, was named to redesign the newly revived medal, which became known as the Purple Heart. Using general specifications provided to her, Will created the design sketch for the present medal of the Purple Heart. The new design, which exhibits a bust and profile of George Washington, was issued on the bicentennial of Washingtons birth.</p><br>
<p>MeritBadge.jpgBadge of Military Merit</p><br>
<p>Purple Heart Medal.pngPurple Heart</p><br>
<h3>Verplanck&#39;s Point</h3><br>
<p>On August 31, Washington temporarily departed Newburgh Headquarters and marched the army southward to Verplanck&#39;s Point. There, Washington staged a review of the Continental Army as an honor for the French Commander-in-Chief Comte de Rochambeau and his army, who had arrived there a few days prior on their way to Boston, where Rochambeau would hand over command of his army and return to France, and the army would depart for the West Indies to attack British colonies there. The Continental Army put on their best uniforms and paraded in an excellent manner. Washington wrote of the display:</p><br>
<p>A few days later, the French and American armies departed, and Washington resumed his residence at the Hasbrouck House.</p><br>
<p>Washington at Verplancks Point by John Trumbull.jpgWashington at Verplancks Point, by John Trumbull</p><br>
<h3>Washington & Rochambeau&#39;s Final Meeting</h3><br>
<p>After Rochambeau relinquished control of his army in Boston, he passed through Newburgh on his way to Philadelphia, where he would depart for France. This would be the very last meeting of Generals Washington and Rochambeau, the victors of Yorktown.</p><br>
<p>French Major General François Jean de Beauvoir, Marquis de Chastellux, who often served as a liaison between Rochambeau and Washington, arrived at Newburgh Headquarters two days before Rochambeau in anticipation of Rochambeaus arrival. Years later, in 1786, Chastellux would publish his personal diaries that he kept during his travels throughout the United States during the Revolution, in which he writes about Newburgh Headquarters in some detail. Titled Voyages de M. le Marquis de Chastellux dans lAmérique septentrionale, dans les années 1780, 1781 et 1782 (Travels of Mr. the Marquis de Chastellux in North America in the years 1780, 1781, 1782) he writes that he arrived to Newburgh Headquarters at six o&#39;clock in the evening on December 5, 1782, where he found "Mr. and Mrs. Washington, Colonel Tilghman, Colonel Humphreys, and Major Walker" in conversation in the parlor. He described the headquarters house as "neither spacious nor convenient, which is built in the Dutch fashion", how the dining room "is in truth fairly spacious, but it has seven doors and only one window, and how "the fireplace, or rather the fireback, is against the walls, so that there is in fact but one vent for the smoke, and the fire in the room itself." The parlor was then converted into a bedroom for Chastellux, with the sitting furniture removed and a camp bed erected for him. The next day, December 6, was passed at the table or in conversation, and Chastellux dispatched a messenger across the river to ask General Rochambeau to stay the night somewhere there, as there would not be enough space at headquarters for Rochambeau.</p><br>
<p>Chastellux departed Newburgh Headquarters on the following morning of December 7, just as General Rochambeau was arriving. Numerous letters and accounts attest to this. Chastellux wrote that Rochambeau "did not join us until the next morning just as I was setting out." In a letter to the French Ambassador Anne-César de La Luzerne dated December 6, 1782, Washington writes, "I expect the Count de Rochambeau tomorrow..." The following day, Washington pens a letter to French Admiral Louis-Philippe de Rigaud, Marquis de Vaudreuil, who was second in command of the French fleet in America, in which he states that "The Count de Rochambeau, who arrived here this morning, did me the honor to deliver me your letter..." It is unknown how long Rochambeau remained at Newburgh Headquarters, nor the topics of their conversation. Still, as Rochambeau departed soon thereafter from Philadelphia for France and never returned to the United States, this marks the very last meeting between the two victors of the Siege of Yorktown.</p><br>
<h3>Newburgh Conspiracy</h3><br>
<p>In March 1783, feeling embittered over their lack of payment from Congress and secretly manipulated by a faction of nationalist politicians in Philadelphia (usually given as Robert Morris, Gouverneur Morris, and Alexander Hamilton), senior officers of the army encamped at the nearby New Windsor Cantonment anonymously authored and began circulating a letter that called for a meeting of all field officers and company representatives to decide what course of action the army should take against Congress. The letters author advocated for an ultimatum stating that if peace was declared and the officers were still unpaid, they would refuse to disband the army and possibly march against Congress. This would effectively be a military mutiny against the civilian government, that could rapidly devolve into a military coup détat. Now known to be the work of Major John Armstrong, Jr., an aide-de-camp of General Horatio Gates, this letter inflamed tensions amongst the officers to dangerous new levels and began what is now known as the Newburgh Conspiracy. Washington, fearing an armed confrontation would be too grave a threat to democracy, confronted the threat head on. After delivering the Newburgh Address and reading aloud a letter from Congressman Joseph Jones of Virginia, he was able to persuade his officers abandon the conspiracy and to instead remain loyal to Congress, to him, and to their republican principles.</p><br>
<h3>Cessation of Hostilities</h3><br>
<p>A month later, Washington delivered the Proclamation for the Cessation of Hostilities that announced the preliminary peace treaty with the United Kingdom, and ordering the army to officially stand down. This marked the effective end of the fighting of the American Revolution, exactly 8 years later to the day since the fighting began at the Battles of Lexington and Concord. He made sure to note, though, that while this did not amount to a "general peace," they should still celebrate and give thanks for the peace:</p><br>
<h3>Circular Letter to the States</h3><br>
<p>In the summer of 1783, as peace with Great Britain in the wake of the cessation of hostilities is slowly taking shape, Washington penned an open letter in which he offered advice on the necessary requirements to achieve success as a new nation. Titled "Circular Letter to the States", Washington began by extolling the advantages of their country, as due to its great size it would have an abundance of natural resources. Even more important, he said, was that the country founded in the Age of Enlightenment, and so the principles of liberty, self-government, and equality would thrive as they embarked on the first experiment of republicanism in the modern era. Still, Washington warned the country of the consequences of not living up to expectations. He believed that they held in their hands the responsibility for "unborn millions&quot the world would be watching their great republican experiment, and if they succeeded, they would prove that monarchy was a system of the past. Conversely, if they failed, they would be mocked as foolish, and republicanism would be marked as a failure.</p><br>
<p>Washington then proceeded to elaborate on four necessities for the country&#39;s success. First, while states must remain individually strong, there must be a strong federal government to keep the country together; he strongly believed that the success of the country was directly tied to the strength of the Union. Second, he insisted that all debts incurred during the American Revolution should be repaid in full as soon as possible so the country did not have to declare bankruptcy. To do this, the States must finally pay their share of funds to the national government, which they frequently failed to do during the war. Additionally, all money owed to soldiers and army officers must be paid in full.</p><br>
<p>Third, he advised that the militia be of a high, uniform standard throughout the nation. Since it was the primary defense of the republic, the militia of every state should be well-outfitted and regularly trained.</p><br>
<p>Finally, he encouraged the country&#39;s citizens to look past their state divisions and see themselves as one, unified people. Rather than identifying with their home state, he said they should simply view themselves as Americans, and that they should be willing “to sacrifice their individual advantages to the interest of the Community.”</p><br>
<p>Washington closed the letter by reminding the country of his qualifications to offer such advice, and expressed his desire to peacefully retire from public life.</p><br>
<h2>Post-War (1783–1850)</h2><br>
<p>Following Washingtons departure, the house was returned to Mrs. Hasbrouck, then became the property of Isaac Hasbrouck, the third son of Jonathan and Catherine. Upon Isaacs death in 1806, the land was divided between his five children. Small plots went to his three daughters, but most of the land was divided between his two sons, Jonathan III and Eli, with Jonathan III receiving the house.</p><br>
<p>Jonathan III married Phoebe Field and together had eleven children. In 1817, he purchased his brother Eli&#39;s land for $15,000. Two of his daughters, Ann Eliza and Israela, opened a school within the house in 1833 to educate local women in the traditional English style. Occasionally, the Hasbroucks took on boarders as well.</p><br>
<p>In the wake of the Panic of 1837 Jonathan III fell on hard times, and the house was put up for sale. His advertisement pitched the house as "the most ancient and durable building above the Highlands and for comfort and convenience unequalled by any building on the Hudson River," with a "splendid view of Highland scenery." With the realization of its historical significance slowly growing in the region, many efforts were proposed to preserve the house as a historic site. Washington Irving wrote of his desire to preserve the house, and in 1839 a corporation composed of Newburgh residents was formed to buy the house and preserve it, but their charter lapsed before any real efforts could be accomplished. Meanwhile, Jonathan&#39;s financial situation continued to worsen and he was forced to take a $2,000 loan in the form of a mortgage from the Loan Commissioners of the State of New York, administrators of the USA Deposit Fund. In 1848, Jonathan defaulted on the due interest payment, so the house was foreclosed and put up for sale, and Jonathan was forced to move with his wife and son to New York City. As there were consequently no bidders, the Loan Commissioners took possession for the State of New York.</p><br>
<p>Under the leadership of Andrew J. Caldwell, the Loan Commissioners were by now committed to the preservation of the house as a public historic site. Caldwell contacted Governor Hamilton Fish, who enthusiastically supported the project. In October 1849, Fish wrote that he favored "securing this hallowed spot for some public object suitable and appropriate to its history." Public approval in Orange County was strong for the sites preservation, and subsequently a bill was introduced into the state legislature and, on April 10, 1850, Governor Fish signed into law "An Act for the Preservation of Washingtons Headquarters."</p><br>
<h2>The First Historic Site (1850–Present)</h2><br>
<p>When the State of New York purchased the house in 1850, it became the first publicly operated historic site in the country at either the federal or state level. It opened to the public on July 4, 1850. Major General Winfield Scott raised a flag at the opening ceremony and dedication. Over the next 60 years, many artifacts were donated to the site from across the world and across history; with no dedicated museum space or gallery, they were all displayed within the historic headquarters, thereby neglecting the story of the house itself. Finally, in 1910, with the headquarters house now overflowing with artifacts, the State constructed a two-story brick building in the Federal Revival style adjacent to the house to serve as an artifact museum and visitor center. Today, the Hasbrouck House is furnished to recreate its condition during General Washington&#39;s residence. Most items inside are reproduction, but a few are noteworthy artifacts with ties to Washington.</p><br>
<p>The site covers an area of about seven acres (2.8 ha), with four buildings: the Hasbrouck House (headquarters), the 1910 museum, a monument named the "Tower of Victory" completed in 1887, and a maintenance shed/garage built in the Colonial Revival style in 1942.</p><br>
<p>The site was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1961.</p><br>
<p>Engraving Washington&#39;s Headquarters Newburgh NY.jpgEngraving of Hasbrouck House</p><br>
<p>NewburghNyWashingtonHQPostCard.JPG1907 postcard of Washington&#39;s Headquarters SHS</p><br>
<h3>Tower of Victory</h3><br>
<p>On the northeast corner of the site grounds is a large stone monument called the Tower of Victory. Opened to the public in 1887, it commemorates the centennial of the successful disbandment of the Continental Army. The date of the Army&#39;s disbandment is given on the dedication plaque of the Tower as October 13, 1783; construction on the Tower was delayed, so it did in fact miss the very centennial that it was meant to celebrate by four years.</p><br>
<p>The Tower was a joint Federal and State project and a special commission was created to oversee its planning, design and construction, with then-Secretary of War Robert Todd Lincoln, Abraham Lincoln&#39;s son, chosen to lead it. The commission selected architect John H. Duncan to design the monument, who would later go on to greater renown for designing the tomb of President Ulysses S. Grant in Manhattan. Duncan briefly considered an obelisk for the Tower, but as the Washington Monument in Washington, D.C. was languishing in construction limbo for over 30 years, he instead settled on the current design. It is meant to be a crude but imposing structure, reminiscent of the revolutionary times, that is surmounted by an accessible outlook which is open to the public through guided tours.</p><br>
<p>There are four bronze statues on the exterior of the Tower, two facing the West and two facing the East, meant to represent the "four pillars" of the Continental Army. Sculpted by William Rudolf ODonovan in 1888, the statues depict a Rifleman (Northeast corner), a Light Dragoon (Southeast corner), an Artilleryman (Northwest corner), and Infantry Line Officer (Southwest corner). Inside the atrium of the Tower was a life-sized statue of George Washington, also sculpted by ODonovan. Small cracks were discovered during routine maintenance of the statue in 2020, so it is currently off-site undergoing repairs.</p><br>
<p>In 1950, hurricane-force winds blew up the Hudson River and tore the original roof off of the Tower. The monument closed, pending repairs; sufficient funds were not raised until 2019, and finally a new roof was installed.</p><br>
<p>Victory Monument.jpgThe Tower of Victory 1950–2019</p><br>
<p>"Tower of Victory" monument.jpgCurrent View</p><br>
<p>Plaque at Washington&#39;s Headquarters State Historic Site.jpgDedication plaque of the Tower of Victory</p><br>
<h3>Other Monuments & Memorials</h3><br>
<p>Also on the property are three other monuments or memorials, each dedicated to a unique and noteworthy subchapter of revolutionary or local history.</p><br>
<p>The oldest on the site is the grave of Uzal Knapp, one of the longest-lived veterans of the Continental Army. During the later years of his life he claimed to be the last living member of Washingtons Commander-in-Chiefs Guard (incorrectly referred to at "Life Guards") and so he was buried on the site with military honors in 1856. Four years later, a monument was erected over his gravesite. More recently historians have come to doubt the historicity of his claim, though, as he is never mentioned in the rolls of the Commander-in-Chief&#39;s Guards.</p><br>
<p>There is a statue entitled The Minuteman, by Henry Hudson Kitson, that was erected on the northwest section of the grounds on November 11, 1924. It is extremely similar to another statue by Kitson at the site of the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Since hostilities began on April 19, 1775, at the Battle of Lexington and ended at Newburgh on April 19, 1783, with the release of General Washington&#39;s Proclamation for the Cessation of Hostilities, Kitson intended for the statues to serve as the metaphorical bookends of the war.</p><br>
<p>In 1927, the Judson P. Galloway Post Number 152 of the American Legion exchanged sod from the grave of their namesake, First Lieutenant Judson Paul Galloway, with sod from Washingtons Headquarters and erected a small plaque outside the house. Galloway was a local Newburgh man who was killed in action at the Battle of Belleau Wood near Chateau-Thierry, France on June 6, 1918, and buried nearby. A member of the United States Armys 23rd Infantry Regiment, 2nd Infantry Division of the American Expeditionary Force, Galloway was posthumously awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for "extraordinary heroism in action" on July 9, 1918: after he was gravely wounded in battle he continued to direct the advance of his platoon in the face of heavy machine gun fire, before he was shot a second time and succumbed to his wounds.</p><br>
<p>Grave of Uzal Knapp 01.jpgGrave of Uzal Knapp</p><br>
<p>Minuteman guarding Hasbrouck House.jpgThe Minuteman by Kitson, visible to the left, installed in 1924</p><br>
<p>First Lieutenant Judson P. Galloway.jpgCommemorative plaque of First Lieutenant Judson P. Galloway</p><br>
<h2>Site Information</h2><br>
<p>The site is currently open to visitors year-round. In summer months from mid-April to mid-October the site is open Wednesday through Saturday from 11 am to 5 pm and Sunday from 1 pm to 5 pm. In winter months from mid-October to mid-April the site is only open Fridays and Saturdays from 11 am to 3 pm, or by appointment Tuesday through Thursday.</p><br>
<p>Visitors must purchase tickets at the museum to view the galleries, the Headquarters house, and the Tower of Victory observation deck. Museum galleries are self-guided, whereas access to the Headquarters and Tower of Victory observation deck are restricted solely to interpreter-guided tours.</p><br>
<h2>Honors and commemoration</h2><br>
<p>On April 19, 1933, the 150th anniversary of Washingtons Proclamation for the Cessation of Hostilities, the USA Post Office issued a commemorative stamp featuring an accurate depiction of Washingtons Headquarters at Hasbrouck House overlooking the Hudson River.</p><br>
<p>Washingtons HQ Newburgh 3c 1933 issue.JPG1933 commemorative stamp of Washingtons HQ</p><br>
<p>Flag of the city of Newburgh, New York.jpgWashington&#39;s Headquarters featured on the flag of the city of Newburgh</p><br>
<p>The Meeker Island Lock and Dam  was the first lock and dam facility built on the Upper Mississippi River. Meeker Island was named after its owner Judge Bradley B. Meeker. Meeker County was named after him also. After a construction period lasting eight years, the site was only in operation for five years from 1907 to 1912 when the growing interest in hydroelectric power led to design and construction of today&#39;s Lock and Dam No. 1 a few miles downriver. It was realized that the new dam could take over the function provided by this first site and another small dam a short distance downriver.</p><br>
<p>Lock and Dam No. 1 opened in 1917, and a hydroelectric plant was added there in the 1920s to power the Ford Motor Company&#39;s Twin Cities Assembly Plant. The Meeker Island dam was demolished, although some ruins of the lock remain. Tops of the old lock walls become visible during low water periods on the river. It is located in the Desnoyer Park neighborhood, north of the Lake Street-Marshall Bridge connecting Minneapolis and Saint Paul, Minnesota.</p><br>
<p>The Meeker Island Lock and Dam ruins were added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2003.</p><br>
<p>Each year, National Park Service historian Dr. John Anfinson and the Friends of the Mississippi River lead a tour of the lock and dam ruins.</p><br>
<p>In 2005 a $380,000 restoration project began to create a public park near the dam. It was finished in 2007.</p><br>
<p>The historic dam site and off-leash dog park are part of the Mississippi River Gorge Regional Park.</p><br>
<p>Whaleback Shell Midden is a shell midden, or dump, consisting primarily of oyster shells located on the east side of the Damariscotta River in Maine, United States. It is preserved as a Maine state historic site and was included as part of the Damariscotta Oyster Shell Heaps listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1969. Other shell middens are located on the estuary in both Damariscotta and Newcastle. The middens in this area were formed over about 1,000 years between 200 BC to AD 1000.</p><br>
<p>The midden originally had three main layers of shells. In the bottom two layers, individual shells were generally 5 - long. These two layers are separated by a layer of soil, and the middle layer is mixed with animal bones. The top layer contains smaller shells. Artifacts unearthed lead scientists to believe that successive tribes of prehistoric people used the area. The top layer was deposited by members of the Abenaki tribes that fished in the area in the summer.</p><br>
<p>Originally, the Whaleback midden was more than thirty feet deep, more than 1,650 feet (500 metres) in length, and a width varying from 1,320 to 1,650 feet (400–500 metres). It got its name from its shape. Only a small portion of this midden remains today as much of it was processed into chicken feed from 1886 to 1891 by the Massachusetts-based Damariscotta Shell and Fertilizer company, eroded by rising sea levels, or looted. Because of this, the Glidden midden, located across the river in Newcastle, is now the largest in Maine and the largest on the USA east coast north of Georgia.</p><br>
<h2>Climate and culture</h2><br>
<p>Early people in Maine were influenced by a changing climate largely shaped by glacial processes. The Late Wisconsinan Laurentide Ice Sheet (LIS) covered Maines landscape 35,000 years ago, extending far into the ocean. As the climate warmed and the ice sheet retreated, Maines landscape underwent deglaciation from 14,500 to 11,000 BCE. Due to isostatic rebound, a geological process in which the earth “rebounds” from the depression of a glacier, sea levels fluctuated immensely. At the start of the deglaciation, sea level was much higher inland; the landscape at the time would have resembled modern-day northern Alaska. This promoted hunter-gatherer practices that could respond more quickly to changing climates. As the glacier retreated, sea levels dropped, as low as 180 feet below what we now recognize as the coast of Maine. Over the last few thousands of years, the sea level has slowly risen, creating Maine’s large littoral zones recognizable to humans today.</p><br>
<p>The Archaic Period of human culture was taking place from about 3,500 to 9,000 years ago, characterized by cultures who started to exploit marine resources. However, there is not much archaeological evidence to suggest this, and it’s more likely that there were ethnic boundaries between groups of people and that transhumance was not occurring, meaning that populations were staying coastal or inland year-round.</p><br>
<p>The Damariscotta River had been used by humans as early as 5,000 years ago based on archaeological evidence of midden sites along the banks. When the Whaleback shell midden was most heavily populated, it could have been sustaining year-round populations of people. This leads into the question of why the site was occupied so much later than other portions of the river, a question which can be answered by looking at the regional-level geology and sea-level rise.</p><br>
<h2>Geology of Damariscotta</h2><br>
<p>The Damariscotta middens are notable for their size and their many oysters by a stream that has few today. The large presence is connected to coastal change, sea-level rise, and the geology of the region. The midden is located between two sills, Johnny Orr and Indraft. These sills, volcanic in origin and most likely millions of years old, have influenced the salinity and temperature of the river. In fact, on the oceanside of the Johnny Orr sill, the level of the water at high tide is higher than the level on the riverside.</p><br>
<p>The Eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica) makes up a large portion of the shells located in the middens. However, oysters are not present in significant populations in the river today. This has led geologists to the understanding that at some point in time, there was a great deal of change occurring on the banks of the Damariscotta River that influenced the creation of such substantial middens. Oysters tend to like warmer, brackish waters – at some point in time, salty, cold oceanic water breached the Johnny Orr sill, mixed with warmer, less salty riverine water and created an environment that could sustain oyster populations about 2400 B.P. The water may have overtaken the sill as sea levels were slowly rising. The reason for the water coming over the sill still remains a gap in the story of the Damariscotta River.</p><br>
<p>Though oysters do still exist buried underneath silt near the middens, significant oyster populations no longer exist within the river due to four possible reasons: 1) predator introduction, 2) suffocation from the dust of the sawmill upshore, 3) increasingly saline environments, and 4) lower water temperatures. In all likelihood, it was probably a combination of all of these factors. Damariscotta is just another example of how changes in the climate have influenced human realities.</p><br>
<h2>Threats to middens</h2><br>
<p>Over 2,000 other middens exist along the Maine coast but many of their locations are undisclosed due to fear of looting. Unfortunately, looting is not the only threat they face. As sea levels rise due to climate change, middens like Whaleback have been swept away to the ocean. The thousands of other middens can offer equally compelling evidence of early-Maine habitation, geology, biology, and many more important disciplines. For example, one midden site has helped scientists piece together that at one point, there was a great deal of swordfish being caught within the Gulf of Maine despite being a deep-sea fish that could prove difficult to catch with dugouts. This challenges our understanding of early maritime technology. Though the need to conduct studies on these studies should be done, it is important to note that they should be carried out with the approval of the landowner on whose property the middens are located, as well as with the associated tribes. To start the process of either studying a shell midden or formally recognizing a midden, interested parties can become involved in the University of Maine ‘Midden Minders’ project which seeks to catalog the various sites along the coast and document the impact of shoreline change.</p><br>
<h2>State historic site</h2><br>
<p>The area around the remains of the Whaleback is a Maine state historic site, first opened for a full season in 2005, with some historical displays and a hiking trail.</p><br>
<h2>Oyster culturing</h2><br>
<p>By 1875 oysters that were once abundant were no longer native to New England waters. Wild populations have been established in recent years by the spawn of aquaculture oysters.</p><br>
<p>Fort Edgecomb, built in 1808–1809, is a two-story octagonal wooden blockhouse with restored fortifications located on Davis Island in the town of Edgecomb, Lincoln County, Maine, United States. It is the centerpiece of the Fort Edgecomb State Historic Site. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1969, with its boundaries increased to create a historic district in 1991.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Fort Edgecomb is located on Davis Island, actually a peninsula jutting into the Sheepscot River across from the village center of Wiscasset. Davis Island is separated from the mainland by a short neck, and Fort Edgecomb is located at the islands southern end. Its most prominent feature is an eight-sided blockhouse, whose second floor is larger than its first, measuring 30 ft compared to 27 ft. The ground floor walls have loopholes through which muskets could be fired, while the upper level had portholes for firing cannons. Although the blockhouse is the most visible feature, the forts main armament was a water battery to defend the river. This battery originally had five cannons, including a 50-pounder columbiad and four 18-pounder smoothbore cannons. Each cannon was in its own bastion, with the bastions arranged in three tiers. The blockhouse also had two carronades, which were a relatively short cannon of large bore.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The fort was built as part of the second system of US fortifications, guarding the then-important port of Wiscasset, then one of the largest shipbuilding centers in New England. A war scare with the British over US trade with France during the Napoleonic Wars sparked the building of these forts, along with Thomas Jeffersons Embargo Act of 1807, which closed US ports and vessels to foreign trade. The forts construction was supervised by US Army engineer Moses Porter, later commander of the Regiment of Light Artillery. Although the fort was built for defense, its first use (as with most of Maines second system forts) was to enforce the embargo. This embargo was not popular with Maines merchants, and it is said that one of two times Fort Edgecombs cannon were fired was in salute at James Madisons inauguration on 4 March 1809 (or, less tactfully, to celebrate his lifting of Jefferson&#39;s embargo). Eventually the War of 1812 broke out. The cannons were also fired on 14 February 1815, when word was received of peace with the British.</p><br>
<p>During the War of 1812, this post saw considerable activity, holding British prisoners of war, many of them brought to Wiscasset harbor by American privateers. In 1814, Fort Edgecomb became an important base in defending against a possible British attack on mid-coast Maine. It remained manned until 1818, and was reactivated during the Civil War.</p><br>
<p>The Friends of Fort Edgecomb celebrated its bicentennial on 13 June 2009, on the grounds of the fort.</p><br>
<p>Jefferson College is a former school in Washington, Mississippi. Named in honor of Thomas Jefferson, the college was chartered in 1802, but did not begin operation until 1811. Jefferson College was founded as an all-male college, but operated primarily as a college-preparatory school, and later became a military boarding school, which it remained for most of its history.</p><br>
<p>Due to declining enrollment and financial difficulties, the facility closed in 1964 and remains closed to this day. The historic campus was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1970, and was designated a Mississippi Landmark in 1985. The site is operated by the Mississippi Department of Archives and History as a historic museum and park.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Development</h3><br>
<p>Chartered on May 13, 1802, by the General Assembly of the Mississippi Territory (territorial legislature from 1798, prior to statehood in 1817), Jefferson College was the first institution of higher learning in the Territory and future State of Mississippi. It opened in 1811 with 15 students, as a preparatory school, under the name of the Washington Academy—a one-room, wood-frame structure, built on the college property. The first permanent buildings, constructed of brick, were completed in 1820. White Turpin served as a trustee. By 1840, Jefferson College offered the degrees of Bachelor of Arts and Master of Arts.</p><br>
<h3>Military emphasis</h3><br>
<p>During the American Civil War (1861-1865), Jefferson College was closed. When the war ended, the buildings were used during the Reconstruction era (1865-1877) by the Freedmens Bureau newly set up within the United States Department of War in the US government to aid in the transition of the former slaves to a society of free labor. In November 1865, the schools Board of Trustees regained control of the facility from the bureau. The institution reopened in 1866 as a preparatory school and continued as such for the next 98 years until it closed in 1964.</p><br>
<p>Between 1872 and 1911, under the tenure of Superintendent J.S. Raymond, the college had its longest interval of stable governance, with increased enrollment. By 1893, the institution had been reorganized as a military school, taking the name Jefferson Military College. Instruction was entirely secondary education. Early in the 20th century, dormitories were built to accommodate more recruits. By the late 1930s, enrollment had increased to about 100 students.</p><br>
<h3>Decline</h3><br>
<p>Following World War II, declining student enrollment, low tuition, and lack of external funding caused financial hardship for Jefferson College. After 150 years of operation and unable to pay its debts, the facility closed in May 1964. In 1965, all buildings and lands owned by Jefferson College were conveyed to the State of Mississippi in exchange for discharging the school&#39;s debts.</p><br>
<p>In 1971, Jefferson College was placed under administrative control of the Mississippi Department of Archives and History. Detailed plans were developed for preserving the historic buildings, and restoration work began in the mid-1970s. In 1977, the former campus of Jefferson College was reopened to the public as a State Historic Site.</p><br>
<h2>Historic buildings</h2><br>
<p>Three buildings, constructed during the 19th century, are contributing resources for the Jefferson College National Historic District:</p><br>
<p>The East Wing, completed in 1820, was the first permanent college building. It is a 3-story, brick building constructed in Federal architectural style with a 5-bay facade. School rooms and the library were located on the first floor of the East Wing. Student dormitory rooms were located on the second and third floors, as well as in the attic.</p><br>
<p>The Presidents House is a two-story, wood-frame home that was constructed around 1830 for John Branch and later acquired by Dr. John Inge. The house was located on property adjacent to Jefferson College and was purchased by the college from Dr. Inge in 1842, for use as the college superintendents residence. In the mid-1970s, MDAH renovated the structure to serve as the residence for the Director of Historic Jefferson College.</p><br>
<p>The West Wing was completed in 1839, with the same exterior design as the East Wing. The college mess hall was on the first floor of the West Wing, and the building was also used for faculty apartments and administrative offices.</p><br>
<p>The old Jefferson College campus includes five other historic buildings constructed during the 19th and early 20th centuries:</p><br>
<p>The Steward&#39;s Building is a 2-story brick structure completed in 1839. It was used for storage and as lodging for the steward and kitchen staff, who were originally enslaved African-American workers.</p><br>
<p>The East Kitchen is a 2-story brick structure completed in 1839. It was the primary cooking area for Jefferson College&#39;s faculty and students.</p><br>
<p>Raymond Hall is a 2-story brick building constructed in 1915 to serve as a student dormitory. It was damaged by fires in 1940, 1943, and 1947, but was repaired after each incident. As part of the state historic site, Raymond Hall is used as a classroom and public program area.</p><br>
<p>Prospere Hall was constructed in 1931 as a dormitory for younger students. The building houses administrative offices and serves as the visitor&#39;s center and museum for Historic Jefferson College.</p><br>
<p>Carpenter Hall was constructed in 1937 as a student dormitory, but in later years it also contained faculty apartments. As part of Historic Jefferson College, Carpenter Hall is mainly used for storage.</p><br>
<h2>Historic events at Jefferson College</h2><br>
<p>In January 1807, former territorial secretary and temporarily acting Governor of the Mississippi Territory, Cowles Mead (1776-1844), suspected that former Vice President Aaron Burr (1756-1836, served 1801-1805 in first Jefferson presidential administration) of a conspiracy to separate the new Old Southwest Territories (recently acquired from Spanish colonial claims) of Mississippi and adjacent Orleans Territories (later State of Louisiana), along the Mississippi River and the port city of New Orleans from the United States and ordered the Mississippi territorial militia to capture Burr to stand trial for treason. In February 1807, a grand jury convened in the territorial capital on the grounds of Jefferson College and after investigation and a hearing, found the ex-Vice President Burr not guilty of any crime or misdemeanor against the United States.</p><br>
<p>Between 1802 and statehood in 1817, Washington, Mississippi, was the designated territorial capital of the Mississippi Territory, and the General Assembly (legislature) of the territory often met in a tavern known as Assembly Hall, which was located adjacent to Jefferson College. Historic Assembly Hall was destroyed by fire in 1993, 175 years after it had functioned as the seat of government.</p><br>
<p>Between July 7 and August 17, 1817, the Mississippi Statehood Convention was held in a Methodist church on property adjacent to Jefferson College. Over time, the old church building deteriorated and was no longer standing by the mid-1870s.</p><br>
<h2>Notable alumni</h2><br>
<p>Albert Gallatin Brown, (1813-1880), Governor of Mississippi (1844 to 1848)</p><br>
<p>John Francis Hamtramck Claiborne, a member of the United States House of Representatives / USA Congress, from Mississippi</p><br>
<p>Jefferson Davis, (1808-1889), first and only president of the Confederate States of America, 1861-1865; previous USA Representative, Senator and Secretary of War.</p><br>
<p>Pete Heine, Louisiana politician</p><br>
<p>Prentiss Ingraham, (1843-1904), Confederate States Army military officer and writer</p><br>
<p>Clyde V. Ratcliff, (1879-1952), member of the Louisiana State Senate / upper chamber of Louisiana Legislature from 1944 to 1948</p><br>
<h2>Jefferson College historic site</h2><br>
<p>As a historic site, several buildings are open to the public. These include the West Wing, the kitchen buildings, and Prospere Hall. The T.J. Foster Nature Trails wind though an old-growth hardwood forest over distances of 0.5 mi to 0.9 mi.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Jefferson College was a location site for several commercial Hollywood theatrical motion pictures and television films / mini-series:</p><br>
<p>The Horse Soldiers (1959) – an American Civil War film of historical fiction related to the Vicksburg Campaign. Jefferson College was used as a film location; wherein, uniformed young cadets from a fictitious Southern military academy were shown in formation marching out at dawn in front of the red brick academy buildings.</p><br>
<p>Huckleberry Finn (1974) – a made-for-TV film based on the adventure novel by Mark Twain.</p><br>
<p>North and South (1985) – an American Civil War historical fiction television miniseries. Jefferson College was used to depict the United States Military Academy at West Point.</p><br>
<p>The Adventures of Huck Finn (1993) – a theatrical film where Jefferson College was depicted as the town of Phelps Landing.</p><br>
<p>The Harrington Meeting House is a historic colonial meeting house at 278 Harrington Road in Bristol, Maine. Built in 1772 and moved to its present site in 1775, it is one of the town&#39;s original three meeting houses. It contains a small museum of old photographs, clothing, and books. The adjoining cemetery has gravestones of historical interest. The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places as Harrington Meetinghouse in 1970.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>When Bristol was settled the land area was larger than today and the distance required to travel to the meeting house was such that three meeting houses were built to serve the Presbyterian population, the others being at Broad Cove (destroyed) and the Walpole Meetinghouse. The framing for the Harrington meeting house was originally erected in the village of Bristol Mills in 1772 but was "pulled down" and re-erected at the head of John&#39;s Bay in 1773. Bristol voters accepted all three meeting houses in 1775.</p><br>
<p>In about 1850 the building was moved several hundred yards to its current location and the interior altered. The interior was made into a "back to" or "reverse plan" arrangement which means the entry doors are behind the pulpit. The windows and doors were changed and a cove, plaster ceiling installed. John Johnston&#39;s A History of Bristol and Bremen indicated that the original meeting house had been destroyed, but in 1960 Ilonka Fertig spearheaded a repair of the existing meeting house only to find evidence the building was the original meeting house from 1772. By 1970 they mostly restored the building to its original configuration, but the pews were left out of the gallery which now houses museum displays and the plaster ceiling was left out to allow a view of the unusual roof framing.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The roof framing consists of king post trusses with a double top chord (or top chord and rafter). This type of king post truss is rare but other examples have been noted in such as in the 1714 Lynnfield, Massachusetts meeting house, 1800 Congregational Church in Windham, Vermont, and the 1799 Strafford, Vermont meeting house.</p><br>
<p>The Sloan–Parker House, also known as the Stone House, Parker Family Residence, or Richard Sloan House, is a late-18th-century stone residence near Junction, Hampshire County, in the USA state of West Virginia. It was built on land vacated by the Shawnee after the Native American nation had been violently forced to move west to Kansas following their defeat at the Battle of Point Pleasant in 1774. The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places on June 5, 1975, becoming Hampshire County&#39;s first property to be listed on the register. The Sloan–Parker House has been in the Parker family since 1854. The house and its adjacent farm are located along the Northwestern Turnpike  in the rural Mill Creek valley.</p><br>
<p>The original fieldstone section of the house was erected in about 1790 for Richard Sloan and his wife Charlotte VanHorn Sloan. Originally from Ireland, Sloan arrived in the United States after the American Revolutionary War and became an indentured servant of David VanHorn. Sloan eloped with VanHorn&#39;s daughter Charlotte and they settled in the Mill Creek valley, where they built the original stone portion of the house. The Sloans had ten children, including John and Thomas Sloan, who each (later) represented Hampshire County in the Virginia House of Delegates. Richard Sloan and his family operated a successful weaving business from the stone house and their Sloan counterpanes (woven coverlets with block designs) became well known in the South Branch Valley region.</p><br>
<p>The Sloan family sold the stone house and 900 acres to three brothers in the Parker family in 1854. The Parker family operated a stagecoach line on the Moorefield and North Branch Turnpike; the journey included a stop at the stone house, where the family served meals to travelers. During the American Civil War, the stone house was visited by both Union and Confederate forces, and was ransacked by Union troops for goods and supplies. The stone house served as a local polling station, and its use as a stagecoach stop ended after the completion of the Hampshire Southern Railroad in 1910. The Parker family opened the house for tours, and it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975.</p><br>
<p>The Sloan–Parker House consists of the original stone section, which faces toward the Northwestern Turnpike, and a wooden frame addition (built c.1900) adjacent to the original stone section. The stone sections exterior wall is about 36 in thick at the basement level and tapers to a thickness of about 12 in at the attic level. Most of the stone sections flooring, and the hardware on the doors, are original. Other features of the Sloan–Parker House property include a large barn (built in 1803) and, to the northeast of the house, the Sloan–Ludwick Cemetery.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and setting</h2><br>
<p>The Sloan–Parker House and farm are situated within a rural, agricultural section of the Mill Creek valley in southwestern Hampshire County. Patterson Creek Mountain, a forested anticlinal mountain ridge, rises to the west of the Mill Creek valley, and the forested western rolling foothills of the anticlinal Mill Creek Mountain rise to the valley&#39;s east. The South Branch Potomac River is located across Mill Creek Mountain, approximately 4.4 mi to the east of the house.</p><br>
<p>The house and its adjacent farm are located along the Northwestern Turnpike (concurrently US 50 and WV 28) about 0.75 mi east of the unincorporated community of Junction (also known as Moorefield Junction). Junction is centered around and named for the intersection of Purgitsville Pike (concurrently US 220 and WV28) with the Northwestern Turnpike (concurrently US50 and US220 westward to Knobly Mountain and concurrently US50 and WV28 eastward to Romney).</p><br>
<p>The Sloan–Parker House is located atop a hillside just south of the Northwestern Turnpike. Mill Creek flows west to east approximately 575 ft to the north of the house. An unnamed ephemeral stream that runs just west of the house joins Mill Creek to the north. Mill Creek continues east through the Mechanicsburg Gap in Mill Creek Mountain at Mechanicsburg and joins the South Branch Potomac River.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Background</h3><br>
<p>The Mill Creek valley and the land on which the Sloan–Parker House is located were originally part of the Northern Neck Proprietary, a grant of land that the exiled Charles II awarded to seven of his supporters in 1649 during the English Interregnum. With the Restoration in 1660, CharlesII finally ascended to the English throne. He renewed the Northern Neck Proprietary grant in 1662, revised it in 1669, and again renewed the original grant favoring original grantees Thomas Colepeper, 2nd Baron Colepeper, and Henry Bennet, 1st Earl of Arlington, in 1672. In 1681 Bennet sold his share to Lord Colepeper, who received a new charter for the entire land grant from James II in 1688. Following the deaths of Lord Colepeper, his wife Margaret, and his daughter Katherine, the Northern Neck Proprietary passed to Katherine&#39;s son Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron, in 1719.</p><br>
<p>As conflicts with Native Americans began to ease, Lord Fairfax sought to entice European settlers to inhabit the sparsely populated western lands of his Northern Neck Proprietary. The Mill Creek valley was one of the first areas of present-day Hampshire County to be settled by Europeans, beginning in the mid-18th century. Early settlers were drawn by the valley&#39;s fertility. Job Parker, a direct ancestor of the Parker family that later acquired the Sloan–Parker House, settled in the Mill Creek valley during this period.</p><br>
<h3>Sloan family ownership</h3><br>
<p>The original fieldstone section of the Sloan–Parker House was erected around 1790 for Richard Sloan and his wife Charlotte VanHorn Sloan. Richard Sloan was originally from County Monaghan, Ulster, Ireland. where they stayed briefly. After observing healthy cattle from Old Fields in Hardy County, they decided to relocate there. On their journey to Old Fields, Sloan and his wife arrived in Romney and chose to settle in Hampshire County instead. They later moved 7 mi southwest of Romney to their property in the Mill Creek valley, where the Sloan–Parker House stands today.</p><br>
<p>To construct the two-story stone house, Sloan and his wife hired laborers to quarry the native fieldstone and lay the stonework. Richard and Charlotte Sloan had ten children together (four girls and six boys), and the large house afforded the couple sufficient room to raise them. The house also provided the family with the necessary space to engage in the manufacture of woven goods. Sloan was a fabric weaver by trade, and he and his family developed a thriving weaving industry on their lands in the Mill Creek valley. Their entire production process was initially accomplished inside the house until Sloan erected a separate loom house. There, he and his sons built and operated six looms. On their farm, Sloan and his family raised their own sheep and grew flax; they also sourced flax and raw wool from local residents. The majority of the Sloan familys woven products were sold locally, and their Sloan counterpanes became well known in the South Branch Valley region. The familys trade in woolen goods and linens thrived until the middle of the 19thcentury. The present Parker family occupants of the Sloan–Parker House retain several woven coverlets produced by the Sloans.</p><br>
<p>According to Sloan family tradition, Richard and Charlotte Sloan used a method of casting lots to decide which of their ten children should marry. Their youngest son James won a contest in drawing straws, and was the only one of their ten children to marry when he wed Magdaline Arnold on January 6, 1834. James and Magdaline operated the Sloan household while the other members attended to their family&#39;s weaving business.</p><br>
<p>Two of Richard and Charlotte Sloan&#39;s sons, John and Thomas, were active in the military and in local and state politics. He also served as a county justice from 1824 until 1828, a county surveyor in 1827, a county sheriff in 1839, and a member of the Virginia House of Delegates representing Hampshire County from 1825 to 1827. Thomas Sloan represented Hampshire County in the Virginia House of Delegates from 1832 to 1834 and again from 1835 to 1837.</p><br>
<h3>Parker family ownership</h3><br>
<p>The Sloan family sold the stone house and 900 acres of surrounding land to brothers John Peyton Parker, Benjamin Parker, and William Parker on December 29, 1854, for $4,000. Following its acquisition by the Parker brothers, the stone house continued as the center of a large farm.</p><br>
<p>Because of its convenient location along the Northwestern Turnpike, the house served as a regional stagecoach stop and local polling place. From the early 19thcentury until the completion of the Hampshire Southern Railroad to Petersburg in 1910, this stretch of the Northwestern Turnpike between Romney and Junction was part of a major north–south transportation route connecting Cumberland and Romney with Moorefield and Petersburg to the south. By 1845 the Moorefield and North Branch Turnpike stage line connected the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O) Main Line at Green Spring with the north–south route in Springfield, allowing stagecoach transportation between Green Spring and Moorefield. The route of present-day WV28 aligns with this north–south route from the Maryland state line at Wiley Ford to Petersburg, and is concurrent with the Northwestern Turnpike (US50) from Romney to Junction and US220 from Junction to Petersburg.</p><br>
<p>The Parker family operated their own stagecoach line along the Moorefield and North Branch Turnpike between the B&O Main Line at Green Spring and Moorefield until 1884, when the B&O South Branch Line was completed to Romney Depot. The Parkers stagecoach line transported passengers down present-day Green Spring Road (CR1), Cumberland Road (WV28), and the Northwestern Turnpike (US50/WV28) to the stone house, where the stagecoaches would stop to allow passengers to have meals before continuing the journey to Moorefield via present-day US220/WV28. When a stagecoach arrived at the stone house, a loud horn would sound to announce its arrival, and then meals were provided to the travelers in the basement kitchen and dining areas (or "keeping rooms"). Travelers horses and other stock were watered and fed outside the basement door. As well as their stagecoach line, the Parker family operated a toll house on the Northwestern Turnpike on the west side of its crossing of the South Branch Potomac River, approximately 4.3 mi northeast of the house.</p><br>
<p>During the American Civil War, the stone house was visited by both Union and Confederate forces due to its location along the Northwestern Turnpike. Union Army troops ransacked and frequently visited the house to retrieve goods and supplies from the house and farm as they traveled along the Northwestern Turnpike. Despite its convenient location and the Parker family&#39;s Confederate sympathies, the house and its farm did not suffer major damage during the war. The Federal government later reimbursed the Parker family for the items appropriated by the Union forces during the war. The Parkers were provided with bills annotating the "purchase" of $162.45 in goods and parts during the years 1862, 1863, and 1864. These bills exist today and are in the possession of the Parker family. Extant records also indicate that the Parker family sold farm goods to Confederate forces as well.</p><br>
<p>One of the Parker brothers, Benjamin Parker, married Isabel "Belle" Parker and they had two sons together: Renick Seymour Parker, who died at the age of 27 years, and John Henry Parker Sr., who married Eleanor DuBois Johnson. She had the wooden frame section added to the house around 1900, at which time the Sloan–Parker House took its current form. After Eleanor Parker died, her husband John Henry Sr. married Kate Parker.</p><br>
<p>The Sloan–Parker House occasionally served as a polling place for the Junction community after 1900, and it ceased being used as a stagecoach stop following the completion of the Hampshire Southern Railroad in 1910.</p><br>
<p>By 1962 John Henry Parker Jr., the son of John Henry Sr. and Kate Parker, was residing at the Sloan–Parker House with his wife Ruth Harmison Parker and their son David Renick Parker. While under their ownership and through their efforts, the Sloan–Parker House and an adjacent 1.5 acres were added to the National Register of Historic Places on June 5, 1975. It became Hampshire County&#39;s first property to be listed on the register.</p><br>
<p>Ruth Harmison Parker was a local historian and member of the Hampshire County Historical Society. She and her husband opened the Sloan–Parker House for tours in 1962, John Henry Parker Jr. died in 2000, and his wife Ruth died in 2005.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The Sloan–Parker House, as of 2018, consists of the original stone section (built ), which faces toward the Northwestern Turnpike, and a wooden frame addition (built c.1900) positioned adjacent to the original stone section. Together, the stone section and the frame addition form a T-shaped structure. The original stone section of the house, built of fieldstone, has remained mostly unchanged since its initial construction; slight alterations were made to accommodate the frame addition. Similarly, the frame addition has undergone only minor modifications since its construction.</p><br>
<h3>Stone section</h3><br>
<p>The stone section was built using locally available materials, and its size was probably considered large for its time. It is rectangular in its plan and measures approximately 45 ft in width and 40 ft in depth. The stone section is symmetrical in its overall interior and exterior design with minor exceptions in its basement. It consists of two stories, one basement level, and an attic. The stone section is topped with a steep metal gabled roof with standing seam profiles. The stone section&#39;s exterior wall is about 36 in thick at the basement level and tapers to a thickness of about 12 in at the attic level.</p><br>
<p>The north elevation (main façade) has three bays on its first and second stories and one window in the western room of its basement level. Three six-over-nine double-hung wooden sash windows are on the second story, two nine-over-one double-hung wooden sash windows are on the first story, and one small window with two sliding panels of four panes each is on the basement level. At the center of the north elevation, a tall stone platform reaches from the ground to the first story and supports a large covered porch framed with wooden handrails and balustrades on its north and west sides. The porchs roof is supported by five square wooden columns: three along the north edge and two engaged columns against the houses stone exterior. The porch is topped with a metal roof with standing seam profiles. The front door, located between the first story&#39;s two large windows, features vertical boards on its exterior side and horizontal boards on its interior side. The front door is topped by a four-pane transom window.</p><br>
<p>The east and west elevations of the stone section of the house are similar in design, but the west elevation has a door and large porch at the basement level. It also has a small one-over-one double-hung wooden sash window on the first story that was added after the wooden frame section was constructed. The stone section&#39;s east elevation features a small porch and a door, which were built onto the north end of the first floor around 1915. The porch is topped with a metal roof with standing seam profiles, and is supported by three wooden Tuscan columns and two square wooden engaged columns against the house. Both the east and west elevations of the stone section have an interior fieldstone chimney. At the top of each chimney, the original fieldstone has been replaced with brick. Each chimney is centered between two small two-over-four double-hung wooden sash windows at the attic level.</p><br>
<p>The south elevation (rear façade) of the stone section remains intact, and serves as the northern wall of the wooden frame section. A window in the stone sections second story was removed to connect the second story of the wooden frame addition. Likewise, what used to be the stone sections rear door now connects the first floor of the stone section with the wooden frame section. This door is also topped by a four-pane transom window.</p><br>
<p>The interior of the stone section contains two floors, each with two rooms, in addition to a basement and attic. The former kitchen and dining room (or "keeping rooms") are on the west side of the basement level, and feature a large fireplace. The east side of the basement serves as a large storage area. The two rooms on the first floor formerly served as bedrooms, but they are now used as formal living and sitting rooms. The first floor originally had one fireplace on the east side, but the design was changed around 1915 to allow for a fireplace on the west side as well. The second story consists of two bedrooms, each with a fireplace. The attic is completely open from west to east. The rafters are exposed, and secured together with wooden pins. They still contain markings of letters and numbers that enabled the proper placement of components as they were lifted from the ground during construction. The majority of the stone section&#39;s flooring, and the hardware on the doors, are original.</p><br>
<h3>Wooden frame section</h3><br>
<p>The wooden frame section of the Sloan–Parker House features various sizes and types of doors and windows. A deep porch adjoins the east and south elevations of the frame section, and reaches to a canted three-bay window on the frame section&#39;s west side. The entire frame section is covered with wooden shingles and is topped with a steep metal roof with standing seam profiles. The interior of the frame section consists of a dining room, kitchen, bathroom, and several bedrooms.</p><br>
<h3>Ancillary structures</h3><br>
<p>Ancillary structures on the Sloan–Parker House farm consist of an old log smokehouse, and a large barn erected in 1803. Widely spaced unhewn logs are located on the barn&#39;s interior and its south elevation. The remainder of the barn is enclosed with wooden framing. There are also several other barns and storage buildings on the property.</p><br>
<h2>Cemetery</h2><br>
<p>The Sloan–Ludwick Cemetery is approximately 415 ft northeast of the Sloan–Parker House in a grove of trees along the edge of an agricultural field. Richard Sloan and his wife Charlotte VanHorn Sloan are interred in this cemetery. Other burials in the cemetery include Richard Sloan&#39;s son Major General John Sloan and American Revolutionary War soldier Leonard Ludwick and his wife Katherine. Benjamin Parker and some of his descendants were buried in this cemetery before they were reinterred at Indian Mound Cemetery in Romney.</p><br>
<p>The Minor Basilica of Saint Mary of the Immaculate Conception  is a Black Catholic parish in downtown Norfolk, Virginia. It is the oldest parish in the Diocese of Richmond and is known locally as "The Mother Church of Tidewater Virginia".</p><br>
<p>The church was built in 1857–1858, and is a rectangular stuccoed brick church. It features a centrally located, three-stage tower with spire. Also on the property is the contributing rectory. It is a three-story, rectangular brick building in the Late Gothic Revival style.</p><br>
<p>It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979 and named a minor basilica in 1991. The associated Saint Mary&#39;s Catholic Cemetery was added in 2001.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Beginnings</h3><br>
<p>The parish began in 1791 as Saint Patrick Church founded by French Catholics fleeing the French Revolution who were joined by some of the earliest Irish Catholic immigrants to the United States. St. Patrick&#39;s was the oldest parish in the Richmond Diocese and predated the formation of the diocese by 29 years.</p><br>
<h3>First building</h3><br>
<p>The first church edifice was built in 1842.</p><br>
<p>Since it was in the Southern United States, the racially segregated Christian church was for Whites only. Fr. Matthew O’Keefe initiated permitting African American Catholics to sit in an assigned portion of the choir loft for their use only. The anti-Catholic Know Nothings threatened him unless the church instituted segregated Masses, which he refused. Thugs tried to intimidate White parishioners until Fr. O’Keefe obtained police protection.</p><br>
<p>The church was destroyed by fire in 1856. Diocesan records show that local Catholic families believed the Know Nothings were responsible. "The Assumption," a painting donated by King Louis Philippe and Queen Amelie, was lost in the blaze.</p><br>
<h3>Rebuilding</h3><br>
<p>The present building was completed in 1858 and was rededicated under the title of the Blessed Virgin Mary of the Immaculate Conception in commemoration of the Marian dogma proclaimed in 1854 by Pope Pius IX.</p><br>
<p>The parish supported St. Mary Academy, an inner-city school that provided a Christian education to hundreds of urban children, most of whom were non-Catholic; however, circumstances eventually forced the academy to close. The parish also operates a soup kitchen and provides other outreach to Norfolk&#39;s poor and homeless.</p><br>
<h3>Merger and renovation</h3><br>
<p>In 1961, seventy-two years after its founding, Saint Josephs—a nearby Black Catholic parish staffed by the Josephites—was clustered with Saint Marys. The newly combined parish would later boast 99% African American membership.</p><br>
<p>After being added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1979 and undergoing an extensive renovation and restoration program, the edifice was rededicated on November 1, 1989.</p><br>
<h3>Minor basilica</h3><br>
<p>On the occasion of the 200th anniversary of the church, December 8, 1991, Pope John Paul II proclaimed the Church of Saint Mary of the Immaculate Conception a minor basilica, the only one in the Commonwealth of Virginia and one of only a few with African-American predominance. In his announcement, the pope stated: "Your Black cultural heritage enriches the Church and makes her witness of universality more complete. In a real way the Church needs you, just as you need the Church, for you are a part of the Church and the church is part of you." Despite the renovations in 1979, a litany of structural issues developed, with a 2015 inspection revealing massive rot and termite damage in the walls and roof. This kickstarted a second restoration project, to the tune of some $6.7M, which was completed in December 2020.</p><br>
<p>During the project, workers discovered a series of crypts and tunnels under the church floor, the latter of which are speculated to have been involved with the Underground Railroad. The restoration also included work on the church&#39;s historic organ, which had been unusable since 1981.</p><br>
<h2>Influence</h2><br>
<p>When Fr. Matthew OKeefe moved north to Maryland, he modeled his new church after St. Marys. Completed in 1906, Church of the Immaculate Conception in Towson shares the blueprints of St. Marys with the exceptions of a larger rose window rather than a spire, thicker interior columns, and brownstone accents to the buttress and windows. Father OKeefe, the first pastor of the new St. Mary&#39;s (Norfolk) and Immaculate Conception (Towson), is buried beneath the altar of the latter.</p><br>
<p>The Elms is a large mansion  located at 367 Bellevue Avenue, Newport, Rhode Island, completed in 1901. The architect Horace Trumbauer  designed it for the coal baron Edward Julius Berwind , taking inspiration from the 18th century Château d&#39;Asnières in Asnières-sur-Seine, France. C. H. Miller and E. W. Bowditch, working closely with Trumbauer, designed the gardens and landscape. The Preservation Society of Newport County purchased The Elms in 1962, and opened the house to the public. The Elms was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1971, and designated a National Historic Landmark in 1996.</p><br>
<h2>The estate</h2><br>
<h3>The house</h3><br>
<p>The Elms was constructed from 1899 to 1901 and cost approximately 1.5 million dollars to build. Like most Newport houses of the Gilded Age, the house was built with non-combustible materials: the house was built around a structural steel frame; the interior partitions, plaster over terra cotta blocks, sit on reinforced concrete floor slabs; the exterior walls are made of brick masonry and clad with limestone.</p><br>
<p>On the main floor, the principal axis leads from the eastern entrance porch, into an entrance hall with a grand staircase and a marble floor, then into the ballroom, and then out to the garden beyond. The wing to the south contains a dining room, breakfast room, and serving pantry (the kitchens were in the basement), while the wing to the north contains a drawing room, library, and conservatory.</p><br>
<p>The second floor contains bedrooms for the family and guests as well as a private sitting room. The third floor contains bedrooms for the indoor servants.</p><br>
<h3>The grounds</h3><br>
<p>In keeping with the French architecture of the house, the grounds of The Elms, among the best in Newport, were designed in French eighteenth-century taste and include a sunken garden. The original American elms having succumbed to Dutch elm disease, the striking shade trees are now weeping beeches.</p><br>
<h3>Ancillary buildings</h3><br>
<p>Trumbauer built a large carriage house and stables on the edge of the property, with apartments above for the gardners and stable hands. in 1910, after the Berwind family began using automobiles, the carriage house and stables were replaced by a new garage, clad in limestone, 125 ft long by 70 ft deep, one of the largest private garages in America, with a central indoor track, and two gasoline tanks.</p><br>
<p>When automobiles replaced horse-drawn carriages, the Berwind&#39;s head coachman became the chauffeur, but because he could not learn to back out of the garage, an automobile turntable had to be installed.</p><br>
<h2>Inspiration</h2><br>
<p>The Elms is considered to be a reinterpretation of the Château dAsnières, an 18th century house in the town of Asnières-sur-Seine in Hauts-de-Seine, France. Nevertheless, it is not a replication; there are significant differences: the flanking sections of château dAsnières are five bays wide, whereas and those at Trumbauers house are four bays wide. The balustrade at The Elms is taller, but simpler in detail. Furthermore, the pediment on Trumbauers garden facade is likely a variation of the pediment at Hôtel Porgès, 18 avenue Montaigne in Paris, built in 1892 by the architect Ernest Sanson. There is no pediment at Château d&#39;Asnières.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Berwind family began spending summers in Newport in the 1890s. By 1898, it was clear that their original property (a small traditional beach cottage) was too small for the grand parties the Berwinds were having, and so they had the place torn down. Berwind hired Horace Trumbauer to build a much larger house, better fitting his status. Like many of the grandest summer residents of Newport, Edward Berwind was "new money" (his parents were middle-class German immigrants); by 1900 his friends included Theodore Roosevelt and Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany as well as many high-ranking government leaders from Europe and America. At this time Berwind was hailed as "one of the 58 men who rule America", making him one of Newport&#39;s most important summer residents.</p><br>
<p>Berwind was interested in technology, and The Elms was one of the first houses in America to be wired for electricity with no form of backup system. The house also included one of the first electrical ice makers. It was one of the most sophisticated houses of the time. When The Elms opened in 1901 the Berwinds held a huge party.</p><br>
<p>During the next 20 years, Berwind&#39;s wife, Sarah, would spend the summers there, the season being from July 4 to the end of August; Berwind would come out only on weekends, for his coal-mining interests kept him in New York during the week. Though the Berwinds had no children, their nephews and nieces would come out to visit on a regular basis.</p><br>
<p>On January 5, 1922, Mrs. Berwind died, and Edward asked his youngest sister Julia A. Berwind to move in and become the hostess of The Elms. In 1936, when he died, he willed the house to Julia, who, not being interested in technology, continued to run the house in the same way for the next twenty five years: washers and dryers were never installed at the Elms. Julia was well known in Newport. She would invite children from the nearby Fifth Ward (a working-class immigrant neighborhood) to the estate for milk and cookies. She had a love for cars and would drive around Newport every day in one of her luxury cars. This was somewhat shocking to the rest of Newport society, where it was considered unladylike for women to drive themselves. It was rumored that her social secretary would perform the "white glove test" to make sure there was no dust on the steering wheel before Julia got into the driver&#39;s seat.</p><br>
<h2>Preservation</h2><br>
<p>In 1961 when Julia Berwind died, The Elms was one of the last Newport cottages to be run in the fashion of the Gilded Age: forty servants were on staff, and Miss Berwind&#39;s social season remained at six weeks. Childless, Julia Berwind willed the estate to a nephew, who did not want it and fruitlessly tried to pass The Elms to someone else in the family. Finally the family auctioned off the contents of the estate and sold the property to a developer who wanted to tear it down. In 1962, just weeks before its date with the wrecking ball, The Elms was purchased by the Preservation Society of Newport County for $116,000. The price included the property along with adjacent guest houses. Since then, the house has been open to the public for tours. The house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1971, and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1996.</p><br>
<p>In addition to a self-guided audio tour, The Elms offers a Servant Life Tour, which brings guests to the basement to view the coal-fired furnaces and the tunnel from which the coal is brought into the basement from a nearby street. The tour shows the lengths to which Mr. Berwind went to keep the servants out of view from guests on all floors of the mansion. Visitors on the Servant Life Tour view the laundry room, steamer trunk storage area, the giant circuit breaker box, ice-makers, galley, and wine cellar below the main floor, and climb the service staircase to the servants&#39; quarters on the third floor. The tour then proceeds out on the level tiled roof and a small aluminum platform, with a view of the rear lawn, shade trees and gardens, and the vista of Newport harbor in the distance.</p><br>
<p>Cahaba, also spelled Cahawba, was the first permanent state capital of Alabama from 1820 to 1825. It was the county seat of Dallas County, Alabama until 1866. Located at the confluence of the Alabama and Cahaba rivers, the town endured regular seasonal flooding.</p><br>
<p>The state legislature moved the capital to Tuscaloosa in 1826. After Cahaba suffered another major flood in 1865, the state legislature moved the county seat northeast to Selma, which was better situated.</p><br>
<p>The former settlement became defunct after it lost the county seat, because it lost associated businesses and jobs. Many people moved to the new seat. Cahaba declined rapidly, although it had been quite wealthy during the antebellum years.</p><br>
<p>It is now a ghost town and is preserved as a state historic site known as the Old Cahawba Archeological Park. The state and associated citizens groups are working to develop it as a full interpretive park St. Lukes Episcopal Church was returned to Old Cahawba, and a fundraising campaign is underway for its restoration.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>Cahawba was listed on the US census rolls from 1860 to 1880. It remained incorporated until as late as 1989.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The name Cahaba is thought to come from the Choctaw words oka, meaning "water" and aba, meaning "above."</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Capital</h3><br>
<p>Cahaba had its beginnings as an undeveloped town site at the confluence of the Alabama and Cahaba rivers. At the old territorial capital of St. Stephens, a commission was formed on February 13, 1818, to select the site for Alabamas state capital. Cahaba was the site chosen and was approved on November 21, 1818. Due to the future capital site being undeveloped, Alabamas constitutional convention took temporary accommodations in Huntsville until a statehouse could be built.</p><br>
<p>Governor William Wyatt Bibb reported in October 1819 that the town had been laid out and that lots would be auctioned to the highest bidders. The town was planned on a grid system, with streets running north and south named for trees and those running east and west named for famous men. The new statehouse was a two-story brick structure, measuring 43 ft wide by 58 ft long, located near Vine and Capitol streets. By 1820 Cahaba had become a functioning state capital.</p><br>
<p>Due to its lowland location at the confluence of two large rivers, Cahaba was subject to seasonal flooding. It also had a reputation for an unhealthy atmosphere, when people thought that miasma in the air caused such diseases as malaria, yellow fever, and cholera. The numerous mosquitoes carried disease.</p><br>
<p>People who were opposed to the capital&#39;s location at Cahaba used this as an argument for moving the capital to Tuscaloosa, which was approved by the legislature in January 1826. That was not a long-term success, and it was moved again in 1846 to centrally located Montgomery, Alabama.</p><br>
<p>After the relocation of the capital, Cahaba was adversely affected by the loss of state government and associated business.</p><br>
<h3>Antebellum</h3><br>
<p>The town served as the county seat of Dallas County for several more decades. Based on revenues from the cotton trade, the town recovered from losing the capital, and reestablished itself as a social and commercial center.</p><br>
<p>Centered in the fertile "Black Belt", Cahaba became a major distribution point for cotton shipped down the Alabama River to the Gulf port of Mobile. Successful planters and merchants built two-story mansions in town that expressed their wealth. St. Luke&#39;s Episcopal Church was built in 1854, designed by the nationally known architect, Richard Upjohn.</p><br>
<p>When Cahaba was connected to a railroad line in 1859, a building boom was stimulated. In 1860, before the American Civil War, the census listed 2,000 residents in the town. About 64% were enslaved African Americans, reflecting the population of Dallas County, which was 75% black and composed largely of fieldworkers on cotton plantations. In the town, free people of color dominated the poultry business.</p><br>
<h3>Civil War</h3><br>
<p>During the Civil War, the Confederate government seized Cahaba&#39;s railroad and appropriated the iron rails to extend a nearby railroad of more military importance. It built a stockade around a large cotton warehouse on the riverbank along Arch Street in order to use it as a prison, known as Castle Morgan. It was used for Union prisoners-of-war from 1863 to 1865.</p><br>
<p>In February 1865 a major flood inundated the town, causing much additional hardship for the roughly 3000 Union soldiers held in the prison, and for the town&#39;s residents. Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest and Union General James H. Wilson met in Cahaba at the Crocheron mansion to discuss an exchange of prisoners captured during the Battle of Selma.</p><br>
<h3>Postbellum</h3><br>
<p>In 1866, the state legislature moved the county seat to nearby Selma. Related businesses and population soon followed. Within ten years, many of the houses and churches in Cahaba were dismantled and moved away. St. Lukes Episcopal Church, for example, was moved in 1878 to Martins Station.</p><br>
<p>Jeremiah Haralson represented Cahawba and Dallas County when elected to the State House, the State Senate and the United States Congress. He was the only African American in Alabama elected to all three legislative bodies during Reconstruction.</p><br>
<p>Together with the minority of whites, most freedmen rapidly left the declining town. By 1870, the overall population was 431, and the number of blacks was 302. During the Reconstruction era, freedmen organizing in the Republican Party and trying to keep their "moderate political gains" met regularly at the vacant county courthouse. Freedmen and their families gradually developed vacant town blocks into fields and garden plots. But they soon moved away.</p><br>
<p>Prior to the turn of the 20th century, a freedman purchased most of the old town site for $500. He had the abandoned buildings demolished for their building materials and shipped the material by steamboat to Mobile and Selma for use in growing communities.</p><br>
<h3>Modern</h3><br>
<p>Although the area is no longer inhabited, the Alabama Historical Commission maintains the site as Old Cahawba Archeological Park. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1973. Visitors to this park can see many of the abandoned streets, cemeteries, and ruins of this former state capital and county seat. The Cahawba Advisory Committee is a non-profit group based in Selma that serves to support the park; it also maintains a website related to the park and its history. It is conducting fundraising to support the restoration of St. Luke&#39;s Episcopal Church, which was relocated to Old Cahawba in the early 21st century.</p><br>
<h2>Folklore</h2><br>
<p>The town, and later its abandoned site, was the setting for many ghost stories during the 19th and 20th centuries. A widely known one tells of a ghostly orb in a now-vanished garden maze at the home of C. C. Pegues. The house was located on a lot that occupied a block between Pine and Chestnut streets. The purported haunting was recorded in “Specter in the Maze at Cahaba” in 13 Alabama Ghosts and Jeffrey.</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>George Henry Craig, born in Cahaba, former USA Representative</p><br>
<p>Anderson Crenshaw, former Alabama judge who served in the circuit and state court when this was the state capital</p><br>
<p>Jeremiah Haralson, born in Dallas County, he was the only African American in the state elected to the State House, State Senate, and Congress during the Reconstruction era. Was deprived of re-election in 1876 by fraud by the Dallas County Sheriff General Charles M. Shelley.</p><br>
<p>Edward Martineau Perine, merchant and planter; owner of the Perine Store and the Perine Mansion on Vine Street</p><br>
<p>The District of Columbia War Memorial commemorates the more than 26,000 "residents and citizens" of the District of Columbia who performed military service in World War I, including the 499 who gave their lives in that service. Located on the National Mall, it was constructed in 1931 as a domed, peristyle Doric temple designed to serve as a bandstand for public events. In a practice unusual for the time, the names are listed in alphabetical order, without regard to rank, gender, race, or national origin.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The memorial was built to honor World War I service members who died in the war. It stands in West Potomac Park slightly off Independence Avenue in a memorial grove of trees. Authorized by an act of Congress on June 7, 1924, funds to construct the memorial were provided by the contributions of both organizations and individual citizens of the District. Construction of the memorial began in the spring of 1931, and the memorial was dedicated by President Herbert Hoover on November 11, 1931 (Armistice Day). It was the first war memorial to be erected in West Potomac Park, part of the National Mall near the Lincoln Memorial, and remains the only local District memorial on the National Mall.</p><br>
<p>Designed by Washington architect Frederick H. Brooke, with Horace W. Peaslee and Nathan C. Wyeth as associate architects, the District of Columbia War Memorial is in the form of a 47 ft tall circular, domed, peristyle Doric temple. Resting on concrete foundations, the 4 ft high marble base defines a platform, 43 ft in diameter, intended for use as a bandstand. Twelve 22 ft tall fluted Doric marble columns support the entablature and dome. Preserved in the cornerstone is a list of 26,000 Washingtonians who served in the Great War. Inscribed on the base are the names of the 499 District of Columbia "residents and citizens" who died in service, listed in alphabetical order without regard to rank, race, gender, or national origin, together with medallions representing the branches of the armed forces. The dome inscription reads, "A Memorial to the Armed Forces from the District of Columbia Who Served Their Country in the World War," and the base inscription reads, in part, "The names of the men and women from the District of Columbia who gave their lives in the World War are here inscribed as a perpetual record of their patriotic service to the country. Those who fell and those who survived have given to this and to future generations an example of high idealism, courageous sacrifice and gallant achievement."</p><br>
<p>In September 2008, Rep. Ted Poe of Texas, with the support of Frank Buckles, then the last living US veteran of World War I, proposed a bill in Congress stating the memorial should be expanded and designated the national memorial to World War I.</p><br>
<p>In July 2010, the National Park Service announced that restoration work, funded by the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, would soon begin on the memorial. Work began in October 2010, and the memorial reopened on November 10, 2011. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2014.</p><br>
<p>The memorial is administered by the National Park Service under its National Mall and Memorial Parks unit.</p><br>
<p>The Jefferson Market Branch of the New York Public Library, once known as the Jefferson Market Courthouse, is a National Historic Landmark located at 425 Avenue of the Americas , on the southwest corner of West 10th Street, in Greenwich Village, Manhattan, New York City, on a triangular plot formed by Greenwich Avenue and West 10th Street. It was originally built as the Third Judicial District Courthouse from 1874 to 1877, and was designed by architect Frederick Clarke Withers of the firm of Vaux and Withers.</p><br>
<p>Though faced with demolition in 1958, public outcry led to its reuse as a branch of the New York Public Library. The building is now part of the New York City Landmark Preservation Commissions Greenwich Village Historic District, created in 1969. In addition, the building was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972 and made a National Historic Landmark in 1977. The AIA Guide to New York City calls the building "A mock Neuschwansteinian assemblage... of leaded glass, steeply sloping roofs, gables, pinnacles, Venetian Gothic embellishments, and an intricate tower and clock; one of the Citys most remarkable buildings."</p><br>
<h2>Early history and architecture</h2><br>
<p>A tall octagonal wooden fire lookout tower was the first building on the site, built circa 1833, located in the center of the merchants&#39; sheds at the Jefferson Market that had been established at this site in 1832 and named for the late President. Court sessions were held in the Jefferson Assembly Rooms that rose above the market sheds. The wood tower and the market structures were torn down by the city to build a new courthouse, the adjacent Jefferson Market Prison building that stood on the corner of West 10th Street and Greenwich Avenue and new coordinated market housing (built in 1883). Of the carefully massed eclectic and picturesque group, only the former Courthouse now remains.</p><br>
<p>The commission for the new courthouse went to the firm of Vaux and Withers, but as Calvert Vaux was busy with the American Museum of Natural History and the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the design fell to his partner, the English-born Frederick Clarke Withers. Withers came from the same background as Vaux, so it is not unusual that his High Victorian Gothic design was similar in some respects to the "Ruskinian Gothic" aesthetic of Vaux&#39;s early buildings, such as in its polychrome materials &ndash; red brick, black stone, white granite, yellow sandstone trim and variegated roof slates. Reasoning that a building with a clock tower was going to look like a church no matter what he did, Withers decided to add church-like touches with non-religious content, such as the tympanum which shows a scene from The Merchant of Venice instead of the usual scene of Christ sitting in judgment or other ecclesiastical subject matter. The building also features stained glass windows and a fountain decorated with birds and animals.</p><br>
<p>The courthouse was completed in 1877, and in 1885 a panel of American architects sponsored by American Architect and Building News voted it the fifth most beautiful building in America.</p><br>
<h2>Use and reuse</h2><br>
<p>The building got substantial use as a courthouse, as the Third Judicial District covered the Madison Square area, where the citys entertainment district &ndash; The Tenderloin &ndash; was located. So heavy was the traffic, that the countrys first night court began there. Among the more noted people arraigned in the courthouse was Harry K. Thaw, the murderer of celebrity architect Stanford White.</p><br>
<p>The building ceased to be used as a courthouse in 1945; its future was uncertain, and it was in danger of being torn down. A group of community preservationists led by Margot Gayle and Ruth Wittenberg formed the Committee of Neighbors to Get the Clock on Jefferson Market Courthouse Started and campaigned to have the building converted into a library. In 1961, the New York Public Library agreed to the plan and architect Giorgio Cavaglieri was brought in to restore the exterior The library opened in 1967, with the police court becoming the Children&#39;s Reading Room, the Civil Court the Adult Reading Room. Budget cutbacks in 1974 caused the Board of Trustees of the New York Public Library to vote to close the branch, as well as two others. After an outcry from residents, the decision was rescinded one month later.</p><br>
<p>The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972 and was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1977, both under the name "Third Judicial District Courthouse".</p><br>
<p>The building received further restoration in 1994 by preservationist architect Joseph Pell Lombardi.</p><br>
<h2>Recent history</h2><br>
<p>In 1996 "Ol Jeff", the fire bell, silent in the Tower for 135 years, regained its voice with Margot Gayles help, thanks to Cynthia Crane and Marilyn Dorato. It strikes the hours from 9am to 10pm. On April 13, 1997, The New York Times wrote: "The bell has newly and unexpectedly connected the community surrounding the building on Avenue of the Americas at 10th Street, helping to put the concept of village back in Greenwich Village; it serves as a powerful, an hourly, reminder of the values of architectural preservation."</p><br>
<p>There are annual tours of the tower, typically during Open House New York weekend in October.</p><br>
<p>By 2012 the buildings exterior was once again in need of restoration, deteriorated ornaments were re-sculpted from the original Ohio sandstone. The towers railings and finial were repaired and resecured. Missing and broken slates were replaced on the slate roof and a new copper drainage system installed. Brick and stone were re-pointed and cleaned. SUPERSTRUCTURES Engineers + Architects led the restoration. The owners and project team were honored by the New York Landmarks Conservancy with its Lucy G. Moses Preservation Award in 2014.</p><br>
<p>The building had further improvements in 2019 to bring it in compliance with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. It reopened in July 2022.</p><br>
<p>The library manager is Frank Collerius who also presents the New York Public Library&#39;s podcast The Librarian Is In.</p><br>
<p>The Washington Aqueduct is an aqueduct that provides the public water supply system serving Washington, D.C., and parts of its suburbs, using water from the Potomac River. One of the first major aqueduct projects in the United States, it was commissioned by the USA Congress in 1852, and construction began in 1853 under the supervision of Montgomery C. Meigs and the USA Army Corps of Engineers. Portions of the aqueduct began operation on January 3, 1859, and the full pipeline began operating in 1864.</p><br>
<p>The system is owned and operated by the USA Army Corps of Engineers and has been in continuous use ever since. It is listed as a National Historic Landmark. The Union Arch Bridge, which carries a portion of the aqueduct, is also listed as a Historic Civil Engineering Landmark.</p><br>
<h2>Design and facilities</h2><br>
<p>The centerpiece of the Aqueduct is a 12-mile (19 km) pipeline that connects the system&#39;s dam at Great Falls with the Dalecarlia Reservoir on the border with Montgomery County, Maryland. Portions of the Aqueduct went online on January 3, 1859, and the full pipeline began operating in 1864. The pipeline runs along what is now MacArthur Boulevard, traversing some of the higher cliffs along the Potomac River.</p><br>
<p>The Union Arch Bridge carries the pipeline and MacArthur Boulevard over Cabin John Creek and the Cabin John Parkway near the community of Cabin John, Maryland. This bridge was the longest masonry arch bridge in the world for 40 years.</p><br>
<p>The Dalecarlia Reservoir serves as a primary sedimentation basin. A portion of the water from the reservoir is treated at the nearby Dalecarlia Water Treatment Plant and distributed to municipal water mains. The remainder of the water from the reservoir flows to the Georgetown Reservoir in the Palisades neighborhood of Washington. This facility serves as an additional sedimentation basin, and then the water flows through the Washington City Tunnel to the treatment facility at the McMillan Reservoir, after which it is pumped through city mains. The Dalecarlia Reservoir was modified in 1895 and 1935 to improve water quality and increase water supply.</p><br>
<h2>System expansion</h2><br>
<p>The system originally used a single pipe for water delivery, and did not have any water purification plants, relying instead on the reservoirs to act as settling basins. By the turn of the 20th century, however, Washingtons growth and the high amount of sediment in the Potomacs water kept the reservoirs from doing their jobs well, and so the first treatment plant, a massive slow sand filter bed system, was installed at McMillan Reservoir, and was completed in 1905. Improvements in the early 1900s were planned and supervised by Army engineer Henry C. Newcomer. The regular use of chlorine as a disinfectant began in 1923 at the McMillan plant. The McMillan plant was not replaced until 1985, when a rapid sand filter plant was opened next to it.</p><br>
<p>In the 1920s, the aqueduct was upgraded with the addition of a second pipe from Great Falls to Dalecarlia, along with several new reservoirs and a pumping station, A rapid sand filter plant was built at Dalecarlia Reservoir, which went online in 1927. The Dalecarlia plant is the larger of the two plants in the system, having been upgraded in the 1950s, and is the plant that serves the Virginia communities that use the Aqueduct.</p><br>
<p>In 1926, Congress approved selling water from the aqueduct to Arlington County, Virginia. A new water supply pipe was constructed at Chain Bridge and service to Arlington began in 1927. Additional pipes were built as Arlington&#39;s population grew, including one under the Potomac River. In 1947, Congress approved adding the city of Falls Church, Virginia, to the aqueduct system, and nearby portions of Fairfax County, Virginia, were added in the 1960s.</p><br>
<p>The USA Army Corps of Engineers built an additional intake and pumping station at Little Falls in 1959.</p><br>
<h2>Operations and service area</h2><br>
<p>The Aqueduct is a wholesale water supplier, and the communities it serves are responsible for billing customers and managing water mains. The service area is:</p><br>
<p>Washington, D.C., and most of the federal installations in the city through the District of Columbia Water and Sewer Authority</p><br>
<p>Arlington County, Virginia</p><br>
<p>Falls Church, Virginia, and part of Fairfax County, including McLean</p><br>
<p>Waterloo Village is a restored 19th-century canal town in Byram Township, Sussex County  in northwestern New Jersey, United States. The community was approximately the half-way point in the roughly 102 mi trip along the Morris Canal, which ran from Jersey City  to Phillipsburg, New Jersey, . Waterloo possessed all the accommodations necessary to service the needs of a canal operation, including an inn, a general store, a church, a blacksmith shop , and a watermill. For canal workers, Waterloo&#39;s geographic location would have been conducive to being an overnight stopover point on the two-day trip between Phillipsburg and Jersey City.</p><br>
<p>It is currently an open-air museum in Allamuchy Mountain State Park. As part of the State Park, it is open to the public from sunrise to sunset. The village was added to the National Register of Historic Places on September 13, 1977.</p><br>
<h2>Canal and railroad eras</h2><br>
<p>Opened in 1831, the Morris Canals traffic volume, which was primarily anthracite coal from Pennsylvania, peaked during the late 1860s, shortly after the end of the American Civil War. Up until that time, the local railroads &mdash; the Lackawanna Railroads Sussex Branch and Morris and Essex Railroad &mdash; had only supplemented the canals operation, rather than competing with it. Both railroads ran within a short distance of the village. After the War, the canals traffic began to quickly shift over to the much faster and more reliable railroad. It was expected that during most winters the canal would be frozen solid, and thus impassable during the time when its chief commodity was in greatest demand.</p><br>
<p>As a result, the canal underwent a steady decline, and so did Waterloo Village. Although the canal was not officially abandoned until 1924, rarely did more than one boat a year (to fulfill the conditions of the canal&#39;s charter) run through the canal after 1900. By the time of the Great Depression, Waterloo Village had been abandoned by its original owners.</p><br>
<h2>Unheralded saviors</h2><br>
<p>The village&#39;s location, within a short distance of the Lackawanna Railroad (which had to overcome a steep eastbound grade towards New York near Waterloo, slowing freight trains to a crawl as they labored up the hill to Netcong), made it easy for hobos to jump on and off boxcars.</p><br>
<p>The hobos, as it turned out, found Waterloo and adopted it as a stopping off point on their cross-country journey towards New York. This new purpose for the village wasnt all that different from its original purpose a century earlier. The hobos protected Waterloo Village by occupying it throughout the 1930s and 40s. The original Waterloo railroad station was moved from the station site during the 1940s and became a private residence on USA Route 206 in Mount Olive Township, New Jersey.</p><br>
<h2>Rebirth</h2><br>
<p>Percival Percy Leach established the not-for-profit Waterloo Foundation for the Arts to finance the restoration of the village in 1967. Leach and his partner in the interior design business Lou Gualandi turned it into a living history tourist attraction with working blacksmiths, potters, candle dippers and weavers demonstrated crafts from the colonial historic eras.</p><br>
<p>The village would eventually become part of New Jersey&#39;s Allamuchy Mountain State Park.</p><br>
<p>Admissions fees being never enough to cover the administrative costs of the attraction, the partners sought out corporate and state grants, but ultimately opened an open-air concert field on the property in 1977 to raise funds.</p><br>
<p>Notable acts who have performed at Waterloo include Muddy Waters, Johnny Cash, the Beach Boys, Steppenwolf, the Allman Brothers, America, Arlo Guthrie, Phish, Chicago, Roy Orbison, Bob Dylan, Neil Young, Indigo Girls, Edie Brickell, Melissa Etheridge, Joe Cocker, The Moody Blues, Blues Traveler, Ray Charles, "Weird Al" Yankovic, Blue Öyster Cult and three Lollapalooza tours. In addition to pop and rock concerts, Waterloo has also hosted craft shows, ethnic festivals, conventions, Metropolitan Opera, jazz, classical music and the Geraldine R. Dodge Poetry Festival.</p><br>
<h2>Controversy, downfall, and closure</h2><br>
<p>Following Gualandi&#39;s death in 1988, Leach became involved in several controversies that brought greater scrutiny upon the Waterloo Foundation for the Arts. The most controversial was the so-called "land swap" that allowed BASF corporation to build a large corporate headquarters on land that had once been part of Allamuchy Mountain State Park. The Waterloo board of directors subsequently brought in a new management team and throughout the mid-to-late 1990s tried to rebuild trust in the running of the village.</p><br>
<p>In 1995, a concert-goer died at a Phish concert that had attracted 30,000 people even though only 18,000 tickets were sold. Events like this had completely overwhelmed the area&#39;s limited access roads and caused considerable friction with the surrounding towns. The foundation began downsizing the concerts around this time.</p><br>
<p>In the period from 2003 to 2006, the Waterloo Foundation for the Arts had received $900,000 from the State of New Jersey for general expenses, along with more than $300,000 since 2000 to cover repairs. As the state showed increasing displeasure with the village&#39;s operation, the $250,000 the group had expected to receive, which would have been used towards the $2 million operating budget for the site, was cut from the 2007 state budget. Waterloo Village was shut down in December 2006, except for the privately owned Waterloo United Methodist Church, which has a small but dedicated congregation and continues to operate as it has for over 150 years. In the period beginning in 2006, the Village was only open intermittently.</p><br>
<p>Percy Leach died in 2007 leaving the organization&#39;s future uncertain.</p><br>
<h2>Reopening</h2><br>
<p>Since the closing, several organizations have continued to restore aspects of the village. Friends of Waterloo and the Canal Society focused on Canal Town while a non profit called Winakung at Waterloo Inc. focused on the sustainability of the Lenape Indian Village.</p><br>
<p>Through a concession agreement with the NJDEP Division of Parks and Forestry in 2014, group tours and programs became available at the village by reservation. Winakung at Waterloo Inc. educational programs meet core curriculum standards and are ideal for school trips, scout groups, and summer camp field trips. Winakung at Waterloo Inc. also offers year-round outreach programs for schools, libraries, historical societies, Clean Communities, and more.</p><br>
<p>In the spring of 2014, a 10-year lease (with the option of 10 more) was awarded to Jeffrey Miller Catering (JAM Catering) out of Philadelphia, making them the exclusive caterer for Waterloo Village. JAM has renovated the Meeting House and Pavilion.</p><br>
<p>Beginning May 2014, the SMS Italian Festival, an annual Non-Profit event supporting the children of St Michael School, began at the village.</p><br>
<p>In May 2017, the stage was demolished to prepare for future festivals and make way for a new stage to be built on the grounds.</p><br>
<h2>United Methodist Church</h2><br>
<p>The cornerstone for the Waterloo Village United Methodist Church was set on August 9, 1859, and the church was dedicated on February 9, 1860. General John Smith was the first to be buried in the churchyard cemetery.</p><br>
<p>Bent&#39;s Old Fort is a fort located in Otero County in southeastern Colorado, United States. A company owned by Charles Bent and William Bent and Ceran St. Vrain built the fort in 1833 to trade with Southern Cheyenne and Arapaho Plains Indians and trappers for buffalo robes. For much of its 16-year history, the fort was the only major white American permanent settlement on the Santa Fe Trail between Missouri and the Mexican settlements. It was destroyed in 1849.</p><br>
<p>The fort was reconstructed and is open to the public. The area of the fort was designated a National Historic Site under the National Park Service on June 3, 1960. It was further designated a National Historic Landmark later that year on December 19, 1960.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>From 1833 to 1849, the fort was a stopping point along the Santa Fe Trail. It was the only permanent settlement not under the jurisdiction and control of Native Americans or Mexicans. The USA Army, explorers, and other travelers stopped at the fort to replenish supplies, such as water and food, and perform needed maintenance to their wagons. The American frontiersman Kit Carson was employed as a hunter by the Bent brothers in 1841, and regularly visited the Fort. Likewise, the explorer John C. Frémont used the Fort as both a staging area and a replenishment junction, for his expeditions. During the Mexican–American War in 1846, the fort became a staging area for Colonel Stephen Watts Kearny&#39;s "Army of the West".</p><br>
<p>Ralph Emerson Twitchell makes the following statement.</p><br>
<p>Bent&#39;s Fort is described as having been a structure built of adobe bricks. It was 180 feet long and 135 feet wide. The walls were 15 feet in height and four feet thick and it was the strongest post at that time west of Ft. Leavenworth. The construction of this fort was commenced in 1828... at a point on the Arkansas somewhere between the present cities of Pueblo and Canon City, having been disadvantageously located. Four years were required in which to complete the structure. On the northwest and southeast corners were hexagonal bastions, in which were mounted a number of cannon. The walls of the fort served as walls of the rooms, all of which faced inwardly on a court or plaza. The walls were loopholed for musketry, and the entrance was through large wooden gates of very heavy timbers.</p><br>
<h2>Abandonment</h2><br>
<p>When the fort was reconstructed in 1976, its authenticity was based on the use of archaeological excavations, paintings and original sketches, diaries and other existing historical data from the period.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The Fort was used as Fort Laramie in the 1979 CBS mini-series The Chisholms, starring Robert Preston.</p><br>
<p>In George MacDonald Frasers 1982 novel, Flashman and the Redskins, the anti-hero Flashman is present at the destruction of Bents Fort.</p><br>
<p>Bents Fort is featured briefly in Larry McMurtys 1985 Pulitzer Prize-winning novel Lonesome Dove, as well as in the 1989 Emmy Award-winning four-part TV miniseries adapted from the book.</p><br>
<p>Bents Fort in the spring of 1834 is a major setting for Terry Johnstons 1988 novel One-Eyed Dream.</p><br>
<p>Bents Fort is featured briefly in episode 3 of James Micheners Centennial miniseries in 1978.</p><br>
<p>Bent&#39;s Fort inspired video game developer Rockstar Games to recreate its likeness in the 2010 game Red Dead Redemption as Fort Mercer in the Rio Bravo region.</p><br>
<p>A restaurant named "The Fort" in Morrison, Colorado, near Denver has architecture and decor adapted from Bent&#39;s Old Fort, with motif and cuisine inspired from the region in the 1830s.</p><br>
<p>Friendship Hill was the home of early American politician and statesman Albert Gallatin . Gallatin was a USA Congressman, the longest-serving Secretary of the Treasury under two presidents, and ambassador to France and Great Britain. The house overlooks the Monongahela River near Point Marion, Pennsylvania, about 50 mi south of Pittsburgh.</p><br>
<p>It is maintained by the National Park Service as Friendship Hill National Historic Site and is open to the public.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Friendship Hill is a parcel of land 675 acre in size, located on the east bank of the Monongahela River between New Geneva and Point Marion in rural southwestern Pennsylvania. The property&#39;s main house, also known as the Albert Gallatin House, is located atop a bluff that is the high point of the property.</p><br>
<p>The house is made up of seven sections. The earliest of these is the original brick house built in 1789. This structure was constructed in the Federal style with a Flemish bond. Along the north side of the brick house, a simple frame dwelling was added in 1798. The Stone House was the next structure added by Gallatin in 1823; this is a -story structure, the largest section of the total house. This was the only structure which Gallatin did not build and oversee himself. This portion was built and overseen by one of his sons, Albert Rolaz Gallatin. A stone kitchen was added in 1824, which was the last addition of the Gallatin era.</p><br>
<p>The rest of the additions include a State Dining Room in 1895, a south bedroom wing completed in 1902, and the servants&#39; quarters added in 1903. These portions were built by the later owners of the house.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Albert Gallatin, a native of Geneva, Switzerland, came to the United States in 1780. He became involved in real estate speculation in western Pennsylvania and Virginia not long afterward, and purchased the land and house that became Friendship Hill in 1788. He sold the property in 1832, settling in New York City. His long period of public service included serving as the United States Secretary of the Treasury under Presidents Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, and as United States Ambassador to France.</p><br>
<p>The house was designated a National Historic Landmark on January 12, 1965, and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places when the register was established on October 15, 1966, at which time the house was privately owned. The national historic site was established on November 10, 1978, and is administered under Fort Necessity National Battlefield.</p><br>
<p>Techwood Homes was an early public housing project in the Atlanta, Georgia in the United States, opened just before the First Houses. The whites-only Techwood Homes replaced an integrated settlement of low-income people known as Tanyard Bottom or Tech Flats. It was completed on August 15, 1936, but was dedicated on November 29 of the previous year by USA President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The new whites-only apartments included bathtubs and electric ranges in each unit, 189 of which had garages. Central laundry facilities, a kindergarten and a library were also provided. Techwood Homes was demolished in advance of the 1996 Summer Olympics and is now Centennial Place Apartments.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The complex was designed by Georgia Tech alumnus and architect Flippen David Burge of Burge and Stevens (later Stevens & Wilkinson), and organized by Charles Forrest Palmer, a real estate developer who had become an expert on public housing and would later head up both the newly created Atlanta Housing Authority and the Chamber of Commerce. The landscaping was designed by Edith Henderson, who also designed the neighboring Clark Howell Homes with her partner Grace Campbell.</p><br>
<p>The name came from Techwood Drive, in turn named for nearby Georgia Tech. The project included a 300-student dormitory for Georgia Tech, McDaniel Dormitory, commonly referred to as Techwood Dorm. It was run by the Atlanta Housing Authority. Throughout the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s the area was synonymous with urban blight in Atlanta.</p><br>
<p>Techwood Homes was built on land cleared by demolishing the Flats, a de facto integrated shantytown adjacent to downtown, home to 1,611 families, most poor, 28% African American. The Public Works Administration replaced the shantytown with 604 units for white families only, with income qualifiers out of the range of many former inhabitants.</p><br>
<p>The neighboring Clark Howell Homes was built in 1941 in a less institutional style. A. Ten Eyck Brown was the architect. Clark Howell was also reserved for whites until 1968, with an all-black counterpart at the University Homes project (built 1938) near Atlanta University Center.</p><br>
<p>Except for a few historic buildings, Techwood Homes was demolished in 1996 before the 1996 Summer Olympics. It and neighboring Clark Howell Homes are now a mixed-use area called Centennial Place. The first phase opened in 1996 just before the Centennial Olympics, hence the new name. Former residents were relocated to other areas, given Section 8 vouchers to assist with rent. Only 78 of the original residents were able to move back into Centennial Place, which had far fewer subsidized units than Techwood Homes.</p><br>
<p>The Roanoke Star, also known as the Mill Mountain Star, is the world&#39;s largest freestanding illuminated man-made star. It was constructed at the top of Mill Mountain in Roanoke, Virginia in 1949 by the local merchants association to draw publicity and trade to the city. The star was initially intended to be lit only during Christmas seasons, but was popular enough with the citizens of Roanoke that it is illuminated every night year-round. It stands 88.5 ft tall and weighs 60,000 lbs, rests 846 ft above the city of Roanoke, and is visible for 60 mi from the air. Its 2,000 ft of neon tubing are typically lit entirely in white, but have the ability to shine solely in red , or in red, white, and blue . The star has become a symbol of Roanoke and the source of its nickname "Star City of the South", and it along with its accompanying scenic overlook are popular tourist destinations in the area.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Mill Mountain is a 1,703 ft peak that stands detached from surrounding ranges and lies fully within Roanokes city limits. The mountain has been used for recreation nearly since the citys beginnings; a resort hotel and observation tower each opened at its top in 1892, an early amusement park was built at its base in 1903, and beginning in 1910 visitors could pay a quarter to ride an incline railway straight to the summit. By the mid-20th century, however, all of those attractions had closed or burned, and the city was debating to what degree the mountain should be developed.</p><br>
<p>In 1949, in an attempt to provide Roanoke with nationwide publicity and increase commerce in the city, the Roanoke Merchants Association devised the idea to erect a giant illuminated star on the top of Mill Mountain, overlooking the city&#39;s downtown. The group began a fundraising drive with downtown merchants (the anticipated beneficiaries of the plan), with the goal of raising $25,000. The Roy C. Kinsey Sign Company was contracted to build the star, while the Roanoke Iron and Bridge Works designed the steel support tower and 2,000 ft of neon tubing were manufactured by the Corning Glass Works. In its completed form, the star measures 88.5 ft in height and is mounted on an eight-story-tall steel structure weighing 60,000 lbs, resting on a base made using 500,000 lbs of concrete. It is considered the largest free-standing, man-made, illuminated star in the world, and when lit, can be seen from 60 mi away.</p><br>
<p>The star&#39;s debut was planned for November in anticipation of the upcoming Christmas shopping season, but construction and weather delays threatened to push the opening back. Former USA Congressman Clifton A. Woodrum spoke at the ceremony and compared the attraction to the Star of Bethlehem, quoting the Book of Matthew by saying, "When they saw the star they rejoiced with exceeding great joy." Another attendee at the dedication was actor and Roanoke native John Payne. Payne had a close connection to another Roanoke landmark; as a child growing up in the city, he provided the winning entry in a contest to name the Patrick Henry Hotel.</p><br>
<p>While it was originally planned for the star to be illuminated only during Christmas seasons, it was popular enough with the citys population that the Merchants Association decided to keep it lit year-round. The association paid the electric bill until 1955 when the city began assuming the cost.</p><br>
<p>While at its inception the star had its detractors, including those who thought it tacky or believed the money could be spent in more constructive ways, it has since become a fixture for Roanokers and is considered "the citys front porch light". The stars scenic overlook rises 846 ft above the Roanoke River below, and its dramatic views of the Roanoke Valley makes it a popular destination for area residents to take visiting friends and family. The star, overlook, and Mill Mountain Zoo are accessible both from Roanoke and from a spur of the Blue Ridge Parkway, and the mountain features a network of trails for hiking, mountain biking, and horseback riding.</p><br>
<p>The Augusta Canal is a historic canal located in Augusta, Georgia, United States. The canal is fed by the Savannah River and passes through three levels  in suburban and urban Augusta before the water returns to the river at various locations. It was devised to harness the water power at the fall line of the Savannah River to drive mills, to provide transportation of goods, and to provide a municipal water supply. It is the only canal in the US in continuous use for its original purposes of providing power, transport, and municipal water.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>19th century</h3><br>
<p>The Augusta Canal was initially completed in 1845 as a source of water, power, and transportation for the city of Augusta. It was one of the few successful industrial canals in the Southern United States. During the time of construction, the city&#39;s Canal Commission was headed by Henry Harford Cumming. Cumming personally paid railroad engineer John Edgar Thomson to conduct the initial survey for the project. In 1847, construction began on the first factory, a saw and gristmill at the present site of Enterprise Mill. The Augusta Manufacturing Company, a sprawling four-story textile "manufactory", soon followed. They would be the first of many factories built along the Augusta Canal.</p><br>
<p>By the time of the Civil War, Augusta was one of the few manufacturing centers in the South. The power and water transportation afforded by the canal were among the factors that led Confederate Col. George Washington Rains to select Augusta as the location for the Confederate Powderworks. The 28 buildings, which were the only ones designed, constructed, and paid for by the government of the Confederate States of America, stretched for 2 mi along the Augusta Canal. Other war industries were established along or near the canal, making Augusta an important center for materiel.</p><br>
<p>As the Civil War moved into Georgia in 1864, there was fear that US General William Tecumseh Shermans troops would move to attack Augusta and her massive gunpowder factory. But Shermans march through the South left Augusta untouched. As a result, the city ended the war in reasonably better physical and economic condition than many Southern cities. The population had doubled and hard currency was available to finance recovery, including expansion of the canal.</p><br>
<p>The canal was enlarged in 1875. A boom era saw the construction of the Enterprise Mill, King Mill, and Sibley Mill, the Lombard Ironworks; many other plants opened or expanded. Many people who lived on farms moved to the city to work at the mills, including women and children. The factories led to the rise of mill villages in their precincts.</p><br>
<p>In the 1890s, the city replaced its old water pumping station with impressive structure at mid-canal that is still used by the city of Augusta today. As the electric age began to dawn, Augusta began to turn the canal&#39;s falling water power to drive the first electrical generation equipment. By 1892, Augusta boasted both electric streetcars and street lights — the first Southern city to have these amenities.</p><br>
<h3>20th century</h3><br>
<p>Flooding was a big problem in Augusta during the early 20th century. Following major floods in the 1920s and 1930s, the Federal Works Progress Administration deployed hundreds of workers to make repairs and improvements, build a new spillway and to straighten the canal.</p><br>
<p>By the mid-20th century, the canal came into a period of neglect. Textile factories began to close and the city&#39;s industrial activity began to shift south of the city. At one point in the 1960s, city officials considered draining the canal to build a superhighway.</p><br>
<p>Flickers of interest in reviving the Augusta Canal began appearing in the 1970s. A state park was proposed, but never materialized. In 1989, the state legislature created the Augusta Canal Authority, the body that has jurisdiction over the canal today. In 1993, the Authority issued a comprehensive Master Plan, outlining the Canal&#39;s development potential. In 1996, the US Congress designated the Augusta Canal a National Heritage Area, the first such designation in Georgia.</p><br>
<h3>21st century</h3><br>
<p>The Augusta Canal Authority moved forward with its master plan. In 2003, the Augusta Canal Interpretive Center (now Discovery Center) opened in the revitalized Enterprise Mill. In late 2003 and early 2004, two modern-day Petersburg boats, inspired by the cargo vessels that once plied the canal with bales of cotton and farm goods, began operation for guided tours.</p><br>
<p>The King and the Sibley textile mills are now owned by the Augusta Canal Authority.</p><br>
<h2>National Designations</h2><br>
<p>The canal is, along with four historic industrial areas, part of the Historic Augusta Canal and Industrial District, which was named a National Historic Landmark in 1977. The Augusta Canal National Heritage Area was designated by Congress in 1996, the first designated National Heritage Area in Georgia. The Augusta Canal & Industrial District was designated as a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers in 2018.</p><br>
<h2>Today</h2><br>
<p>The Augusta Canal is a principal source of drinking water in Augusta and is a centerpiece of the city. It also has been a focus of redevelopment. Textile mills such as the Enterprise and Sutherland mills have been converted to upscale offices and loft apartments. New projects, such as the Kroc Center and Canalside Apartments have been constructed. Other developments such as Harrisburg Canal Village, and Augusta Canal Mill Village trailhead are proposed or under construction.</p><br>
<p>The canal is best known today for its recreational facilities, including daily guided tours on electric tour boats, paddling and kayaking, and for its multi-use trail. The 7 mi towpath on the canal&#39;s first level forms a backbone for the recreational trail system, complemented by newer trails including the River Levee Trail, Third Level Trail, and the Southern Off-Road Bicycle Association (SORBA) single-track mountain bike trail.</p><br>
<h2>Augusta Canal Discovery Center at Enterprise Mill</h2><br>
<p>Enterprise Mill in Augusta is also the site of the Augusta Canal Discovery Center at Enterprise Mill, (known as the Interpretive Center from 2003-2013.) The interactive museum details how the canal was built and how it works, hydroelectricity, the history of the mills along the canal and the life of mill workers, and the 20th century decline of the mills and the effects on the canal. Boat tours of the Canal start from the Discovery Center.</p><br>
<h2>Crossings</h2><br>
<p>St. Johns Church is an Episcopal church located at 2401 East Broad Street in Richmond, Virginia, United States. Formed from several earlier parishes, St. Johns is the oldest church in the city of Richmond, Virginia. It was built in 1741 by William Randolph&#39;s son, Colonel Richard Randolph; the Church Hill district was named for it. It was the site of two important conventions in the period leading to the American Revolutionary War, and is famous as the location where American Founding Father Patrick Henry gave his memorable speech at the Second Virginia Convention, closing with the often-quoted demand, "Give me liberty, or give me death!" The church is designated as a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Henricus</h3><br>
<p>The earliest precursor of St. Johns was Henrico Parish Church, initially located at Sir Thomas Dales progressive development at Henricus (also known as the "Cittie of Henricus", "Henricopolis" or "Henrico Town"). When the colony was organized, the Anglican Church was the established church of the Crown.</p><br>
<p>Founded in the Virginia Colony in 1611, Henricus was notable for a number of "firsts". It was the first to allocate land to individuals and the site of the first "College" in colonial Virginia, a school modeled after those in Europe during the 17th century. The College at Henricus was to include education for the children of the Native Americans.</p><br>
<p>It was at Henricus that colonists held Pocahontas captive; she was the daughter of Chief Powhatan, leader of the Powhatan Confederacy. During the year-long wait, the first rector of the church, Rev. Alexander Whitaker taught her about Christianity and helped her improve her fluency in English. She was baptized as "Rebecca". She married John Rolfe, who established Varina Farms, a plantation across the James River. Rolfe smuggled seeds of sweet Spanish tobacco into Virginia, where it rapidly replaced the much harsher local strains.</p><br>
<p>Whitaker was drowned in the James River in 1617. His associate, the Reverend William Wickham, held the Henrico Parish Church together awaiting the arrival from England of the Reverend Thomas Bargrave in 1619. Also in 1619, Henricus became located in Henrico Cittie (sic), one of four large "incorporations" or "burroughs" formed by the Virginia Company of London in 1619.</p><br>
<p>Henricus was an outpost of Jamestown, one of the most westerly settlements at the time. This proved a severe disadvantage on Good Friday in 1622, when the entire development at Henricus and the church were destroyed in the Indian Massacre of 1622, in which a third of all colonists in Virginia were killed.</p><br>
<p>The Virginia Company lost its charter in 1624 and Virginia became a royal colony. Henricus was not rebuilt, but its long-lost site, now located in Chesterfield County (formed from Henrico County in 1749), was discovered in the late 20th century. A county historical park is located there.</p><br>
<h3>Varina, Henrico Parish</h3><br>
<p>Despite the destruction of Henricus, the colony continued to grow, and a small village developed at Rolfe&#39;s Varina Farms Plantation, which became known as Varina (also called "Henrico Parish" in early years). The Shire of Henrico (soon renamed Henrico County) was formed in 1634 as one of the eight original shires of Virginia. The initial county seat was at Varina, which officially became a town in 1680. In those days before separation of church and state, the parish boundaries were the same as those of the county.</p><br>
<p>Notable among Henrico Parishs leaders was the Reverend Dr. James Blair (1656–1743), who was named Commissary in the Virginia Colony for the Bishop of London, making him the colonys highest-ranking religious leader. At the urging of the House of Burgesses, he became a founder and the first president of the College of William and Mary. In doing so, James Blair is said to have used some of the plans of the ill-fated earlier College at Henricus. Apparently taking no chances, the newer College was established at the fortified location of Middle Plantation in James City County, later renamed Williamsburg, to which the capital was later moved from Jamestown. Blair became the rector of Bruton Parish Church there.</p><br>
<p>Exact locations of the church buildings at Varina are unknown. A third or fourth church building was built a few miles east of Varina Farms on a plantation known as "Curles", some twenty miles east of the present city of Richmond, in the current Varina District of Henrico County. The only relic of that church still surviving is the bowl of the baptismal font, which today is used at St. John&#39;s.</p><br>
<h3>Richmond, Church Hill</h3><br>
<p>Henrico Parish Church moved to Richmond in 1741, and was housed in what is now the Church Hill neighborhood, on land donated by William Byrd II. Byrd also donated timber used to build the church, and wood to fire the kiln for the bricks for the foundation. Henrico&#39;s county seat was also moved from Varina to Richmond in 1752. The county offices were moved to a building still extant at present-day Twenty-second and Main Streets, where they operated until the 1970s.</p><br>
<p>The builder of the new church was Col. Richard Randolph (1686–1748), great-uncle to Thomas Jefferson. The original church building was completed on June 10, 1741. It remains as the transept of the current church, built along east-west lines. In 1772, a forty-foot-square extension was added to the northern side, orienting the church towards the south, to which end the altar was moved.</p><br>
<p>Over one hundred frame churches similar to this existed in Virginia before the American Revolution, of which only four are still standing. One of these is the Old Chapel Church in Franklin County, Virginia</p><br>
<h3>Second Virginia Convention</h3><br>
<p>The Virginia colonial legislative assembly, the House of Burgesses, was dismissed by the royal governor due to tensions that led up to the American Revolutionary War. The Burgesses met as a provisional government in the First Virginia Convention in Williamsburg. Since the governor had loyalist forces in the vicinity of the capital of Williamsburg, it was decided to hold the next convention in Richmond. On March 23, 1775, the Second Virginia Convention was opened at the church. The President of the Convention was Peyton Randolph, who was also the Speaker of the House of Burgesses.</p><br>
<p>The Reverend Miles Selden was the rector of St. John&#39;s church at the time, and when the Convention assembled, he was chosen as Chaplain. Selden was popularly referred to as the "Patriot Parson." Among the 120 delegates were Thomas Jefferson and George Washington. Other notable delegates were Benjamin Harrison V, Thomas Mann Randolph, Richard Bland, Richard Henry Lee and Francis Lightfoot Lee. Debate centered on the perceived need to raise a militia to resist encroachments on civil rights by the British Government under King George III. Patrick Henry, a delegate from Hanover County, rose in support of such a militia and, with his fiery speech (concluding with the words "Give me liberty or give me death!"), swayed the vote.</p><br>
<p>Under a Resolution offered by Richard Henry Lee, the House of Burgesses on May 15, 1776 resolved that "the delegates appointed to represent this colony in General Congress be instructed to propose to that respectable body to declare the united Colonies free and independent states."</p><br>
<p>It is notable that the Second Virginia Convention authorized Baptist chaplains to minister to soldiers, an important early step toward freedom of religion in what became the Commonwealth of Virginia. Baptists and Methodists had been influential in Virginia during and following the Great Awakening, and many of the common people had already become affiliated with Baptist and Methodist congregations. After the war, the Anglican Church was disestablished, and the Episcopal Church of the United States was organized.</p><br>
<h3>Third Virginia Convention</h3><br>
<p>The Third Virginia Convention was held at St. John&#39;s Church on July 17, 1775 to organize the troops and the war effort of Virginia. George Washington of Fairfax had been appointed head of the American Army. The delegates acknowledged the debt to Patrick Henry, whose wisdom had already begun the arming of the colony, and he was named the first Governor of Virginia.</p><br>
<h3>American Revolutionary War</h3><br>
<p>During the American Revolutionary War, in January 1781, General Benedict Arnold, the traitor who was then serving on the British side, quartered his troops in the church when Richmond was occupied.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>The church serves an active congregation and ministries, and also receives tourists as a historic site.</p><br>
<p>George Wythe, the first law professor in the United States, a delegate to the Continental Congress and signatory of the Declaration of Independence, is buried in the churchyard. Elizabeth Arnold Poe, mother of author Edgar Allan Poe, is buried in the churchyard. Her exact burial spot is unknown, but a memorial marks the general area.</p><br>
<p>There is a gift shop located within the churchyard from which regular guided tours depart. These tours take place inside the church and explore the events in Virginia leading up to the Second Virginia Convention, Patrick Henrys famous speech, and his political career. Reenactments featuring professional actors in 1700s costumes are offered on Sundays at 1:30 p.m. from Memorial Day to Labor Day and regularly attract over 100 attendees. The Walter W. Craigie Speaker Series brings speakers to St. Johns Church to talk about topics related to history and has included former Virginia governors Douglas Wilder and George Allen.</p><br>
<p>The Wainwright Building  is a 10-story, 41 m terra cotta office building at 709 Chestnut Street in downtown St. Louis, Missouri. The Wainwright Building is considered to be one of the first aesthetically fully expressed early skyscrapers. It was designed by Dankmar Adler and Louis Sullivan and built between 1890 and 1891. It was named for local brewer, building contractor, and financier Ellis Wainwright.</p><br>
<p>The building, listed as a landmark both locally and nationally, is described as "a highly influential prototype of the modern office building" by the National Register of Historic Places. Architect Frank Lloyd Wright called the Wainwright Building "the very first human expression of a tall steel office-building as Architecture."</p><br>
<p>In May 2013 it was listed by an episode of the PBS series 10 That Changed America as one of "10 Buildings That Changed America" because it was "the first skyscraper that truly looked the part" with Sullivan being dubbed the "Father of Skyscrapers."</p><br>
<h2>Commission, design and construction</h2><br>
<p>The Wainwright building was commissioned by Ellis Wainwright, a St. Louis brewer. Wainwright needed office space to manage the St Louis Brewers Association. It was the second major commission for a tall building won by the Adler & Sullivan firm, which had grown to international prominence after the creation of the ten-story Auditorium Building in Chicago (designed in 1886 and completed in 1889). As designed, the first floor of the Wainwright Building was intended for street-accessible shops, with the second floor filled with easily accessible public offices. The higher floors were for "honeycomb" offices, while the top floor was for water tanks and building machinery.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>Aesthetically, the Wainwright Building exemplifies Sullivans theories about the tall building, which included a tripartite (three-part) composition (base-shaft-attic) based on the structure of the classical column, and his desire to emphasize the height of the building. He wrote: " must be tall, every inch of it tall. The force and power of altitude must be in it the glory and pride of exaltation must be in it. It must be every inch a proud and soaring thing, rising in sheer exultation that from bottom to top it is a unit without a single dissenting line." His 1896 article cited his Wainwright Building as an example. Despite the classical column concept, the buildings design was deliberately modern, featuring none of the neoclassical style that Sullivan held in contempt.</p><br>
<p>Historian Carl W. Condit described the Wainwright as "a building with a strong, vigorously articulated base supporting a screen that constitutes a vivid image of powerful upward movement." The base contained retail stores that required wide glazed openings; Sullivans ornament made the supporting piers read as pillars. Above it the semi-public nature of offices up a single flight of stairs are expressed as broad windows in the curtain wall. A cornice separates the second floor from the grid of identical windows of the screen wall, where each window is "a cell in a honeycomb, nothing more". The buildings windows and horizontals were inset slightly behind columns and piers, as part of a "vertical aesthetic" to create what Sullivan called "a proud and soaring thing." This perception has since been criticized as the skyscraper was designed to make money, not to serve as a symbol.</p><br>
<p>The ornamentation for the building includes a wide frieze below the deep cornice, which expresses the formalized yet naturalistic celery-leaf foliage typical of Sullivan and published in his System of Architectural Ornament, decorated spandrels between the windows on the different floors and an elaborate door surround at the main entrance. "Apart from the slender brick piers, the only solids of the wall surface are the spandrel panels between the windows..... They have rich decorative patterns in low relief, varying in design and scale with each story." The frieze is pierced by unobtrusive bull&#39;s-eye windows that light the top-story floor, originally containing water tanks and elevator machinery. The building includes embellishments of terra cotta, a building material that was gaining popularity at the time of construction.</p><br>
<p>One of Sullivan&#39;s primary concerns was the development of an architectural symbolism consisting of simple geometric, structural forms and organic ornamentation. The Wainwright Building where he juxtaposed the objective-tectonic and the subjective-organic was the first demonstration of this symbolism.</p><br>
<p>Unlike Sullivan, Adler described the building as a "plain business structure" stating:</p><br>
<p>In a utilitarian age like ours it is safe to assume that the real-estate owner and the investor in buildings will continue to erect the class of buildings from which the greatest possible revenue can be obtained with the least possible outlay... The purpose of erecting buildings other than those required for the shelter of their owners is specifically that of making investments for profit.</p><br>
<p>The building is considered the first skyscraper to forgo the normal ornamentation used on skyscrapers at the time.</p><br>
<p>Some architectural elements from the building have been removed in renovations and taken to the Sauget, Illinois storage site of the National Building Arts Center.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Upon its initial completion, the Wainwright Building was "popular with the people" and received "favorably" by critics.</p><br>
<p>In 1968, the building was designated as a National Historic Landmark and in 1972 it was named a city landmark.</p><br>
<p>The Wainwright building was initially rescued from demolition by the National Trust for Historic Preservation when the Trust took an option on the structure. Later, it was acquired by Missouri as part of a state office complex and the St. Louis Landmarks Association, in one of its early victories, is credited with having rescued the Wainwright Building from a construction project.</p><br>
<p>The neighboring Lincoln Trust building (later known as the Title Guaranty building; designed by Eames and Young, built in 1898 at 706 Chestnut St.) was demolished to make way for the Gateway Mall in 1983. Carolyn Toft, Landmarks Association&#39;s executive director, stated that this building "... formed an ensemble with three other late-19th century commercial buildings, including, that could not be equaled anywhere else in the country. Saving the Wainwright was important, but how much more important it would have been to save the entire group." Architect John D. Randall led an extensive letter-writing campaign to the governor and other noted officials; the campaign resulted in the restoration of the building as a state office building instead of its demolition.</p><br>
<p>The building housed state offices until it was sold in 2024 at a government auction for $8 Million. The buyer, Park Equity LLC, is affiliated with Greater St. Louis Inc., an urban development fund.</p><br>
<p>Sheffield Island Light is a historic lighthouse located at the southern end of the Norwalk Islands in Norwalk, Connecticut. It marks the west side of the mouth of the Norwalk River on northern Long Island Sound.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The island, at the time known as "White Island", was purchased by Captain Robert Sheffield in 1804 for $6000. In 1826 Gershom Smith, Sheffields son in law, sold 4 of the islands 53 acre at the southwest point to the United States government for the purpose of building a lighthouse. Smith would serve as the first keeper for the light which was completed in 1828. At the time the island was known as Smith Island. The first light originally ran on oil.</p><br>
<p>In 1857 the light was upgraded to a fourth-order Fresnel lens. The original 30 ft tower was replaced by a Victorian style limestone (masonry) dwelling, with a 44 ft high light tower in the gable, in 1868. The Fresnel lens from 1857 was moved into the new structure and with a focal plane 51 ft above water it was visible for more than 12 mi. The lighthouse is of the same design as lighthouses at Great Captain Island and Morgan Point in Connecticut; Old Field Point Light and Plum Island in New York; and Block Island North in Rhode Island.</p><br>
<p>Greens Ledge Light was built to the west of Sheffield in 1900 and was better located to warn ships of the rocks and shoals on the approach to Sheffield Island harbor and Norwalk harbor. Sheffield Island Light was then deactivated in 1902. Sheffield Island Lighthouse was put up for sale in 1914 and purchased by Thorsten O. Stabell. In 1986 the 118-year-old structure was purchased by the Norwalk Seaport Association for renovation and restoration. In 1989 the lighthouse was placed on the National Register of Historic Places. In 1993 an electric generator was added to the structure. In the fall of that year, a great storm flooded the basement of the building and artifacts were lost or destroyed. In October 2011 the lighthouse was re-lit by a solar powered system installed to replace the gasoline generator system. The beacon is focused only on the Norwalk side and is not intended for use as navigation.</p><br>
<p>The Parthenon in Centennial Park, Nashville, Tennessee, United States, is a full-scale replica of the original Parthenon in Athens, Greece. It was designed by architect William Crawford Smith and built in 1897 as part of the Tennessee Centennial Exposition.</p><br>
<p>Today, the Parthenon, which functions as an art museum, stands as the centerpiece of Centennial Park, a large public park just west of downtown Nashville. Alan LeQuire&#39;s 1990 re-creation of the Athena Parthenos statue in the naos (the east room of the main hall) is the focus of the Parthenon just as it was in ancient Greece. Since the building is complete and its decorations were polychromed (painted in colors) as close to the presumed original as possible, this replica of the original Parthenon in Athens serves as a monument to what is considered the pinnacle of classical architecture. The plaster replicas of the Parthenon Marbles found in the Treasury Room (the west room of the main hall) are direct casts of the original sculptures which adorned the pediments of the Athenian Parthenon, dating to 438 BC. The surviving originals are housed in the British Museum in London and at the Acropolis Museum in Athens.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Nashville&#39;s nickname, the "Athens of the South", influenced the choice of the building as the centerpiece of the 1897 Centennial Exposition. A number of buildings at the exposition were based on ancient originals. However, the Parthenon was the only one that was an exact reproduction. It was also the only one that was preserved by the city, although the Knights of Pythias Pavilion building was purchased and moved to nearby Franklin, Tennessee.</p><br>
<p>Major Eugene Castner Lewis was the director of the Tennessee Centennial Exposition and it was at his suggestion that a reproduction of the Parthenon be built in Nashville to serve as the centerpiece of Tennessee&#39;s Centennial Celebration. Lewis also served as the chief civil engineer for the Nashville, Chattanooga and St. Louis Railroad. Originally built of plaster, wood, and brick, the Parthenon was not intended to be permanent, but the cost of demolishing the structure combined with its popularity with residents and visitors alike resulted in it being left standing after the Exposition.</p><br>
<p>In 1895, George Julian Zolnay was "employed to make models for the ornamentation" for the building. Within the next 20 years, weather had caused deterioration of the landmark; it was then rebuilt on the same foundations, in concrete, in a project that started in 1920; the exterior was completed in 1925 and the interior in 1931. Local architect Russell Hart was hired for the reconstruction.</p><br>
<p>Some of the most elaborate events that occurred at the Parthenon were the Spring Pageants of 1913 and 1914. These extravaganzas were theatrical productions. With casts of up to 500, the pageants attracted audiences from surrounding states and rail prices were lowered to encourage attendance. The city of Nashville celebrated the "Athens of the South". The 1913 performance was entitled The Fire Regained, a play written by Sidney Mttron Hirsch, and featured a mythological story line enhanced by theatrical spectacle popular in that era. The 1914 production, The Mystery at Thanatos, had a similarly mythological plot, but was shorter and better received. A copy of the script is on file at the Nashville Public Library. Both shows featured displays ranging from chariot races to large dance numbers to thousands of live birds to set pieces that shot flames, all set against the backdrop of the Nashville Parthenon.</p><br>
<h2>Current use</h2><br>
<p>As an art museum, the Parthenon&#39;s permanent collection on the lower level exhibits 63 paintings by 19th and 20th century American artists, donated by James M. Cowan in 1927–1929. Additional gallery spaces provide a venue for temporary shows and exhibits. The main level contains a replica, completed in 1990, of the Athena Parthenos statue that was in the original Parthenon in Athens.</p><br>
<p>In 1982, Alan LeQuire was commissioned to create the statue of Athena Parthenos</p><br>
<p>In the summertime, local theater productions use the building as a backdrop for classic Greek plays such as Euripides Medea and Sophocles Antigone, performing (usually for free) on the steps of the Parthenon. Other performances, such as Mary Zimmermans Metamorphoses, have been held inside, at the foot of Athenas statue.</p><br>
<p>In 2001, the Nashville Parthenon received much needed cleaning and restoration of the exterior. The exterior lighting was upgraded to allow the columns of the building to be illuminated with different colors than the facade.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The Parthenon served as the location for the political rally in the climactic scene of Robert Altman&#39;s 1975 film Nashville.</p><br>
<p>It was used as a backdrop for the battle against the Hydra in the 2010 film Percy Jackson & the Olympians: The Lightning Thief.</p><br>
<p>It features in the title and lyrics of the song "Nashville Parthenon" from the album Etiquette, by Casiotone for the Painfully Alone, as well as the song&#39;s 2011 sequel "Goodbye Parthenon".</p><br>
<p>It was used in the 2000 PBS series Greeks: Crucible of Civilization.</p><br>
<p>A poem titled "Ganymede" in Heather Ross Miller&#39;s Celestial Navigator: Writing Poems with Randall Jarrell features the Parthenon.</p><br>
<p>The structure figures in the climax of the Hector Lassiter novel Three Chords and The Truth, by Craig McDonald.</p><br>
